Kashmir, nestled in the western Himalayas, is known for its snow-capped peaks, clear lakes, and a rich network of wetlands spread across more than 7,000 hectares. These wetlands are not just scenic landscapes. They regulate water, support livelihoods, and host thousands of migratory birds every winter.
But a recent scientific study offers a quiet warning. Human activities such as urban expansion, waste dumping, grazing, farming, and tourism are steadily altering the soil beneath Kashmir’s wetlands. These changes, though not always visible, are weakening the wetlands from within. The study finds that urban wetlands near Srinagar show clear signs of soil degradation, raising concerns about their future and the ecosystems and communities that depend on them.
Wetlands are areas where water meets land. They include lakes, marshes, peatlands, floodplains, mangroves, rivers, and even rice fields. Some wetlands remain flooded all year, while others hold water only during certain seasons. The amount of water present in a wetland can vary, and some wetlands get permanently flooded, while others get filled with water seasonally. Most wetlands, however, retain soils saturated with water, and some plants thrive in these saturated soils. Wetlands often have hydric soils that develop when chemical changes take place in the soil due to the low oxygen due to prolonged saturation.
Wetlands are highly productive environments and provide food and water for a large variety of plants and animals that depend on them for survival, such as birds, mammals, reptiles, amphibians, fish and invertebrates. Wetlands are also important storehouses of plant genetic material.
Wetlands are vital for controlling the microclimate of the surrounding environment, and the level and water quality of the groundwater are influenced both directly and indirectly by the quality of the surface water from the wetlands.
The wetlands of the Kashmir Valley serve as vital biodiversity hotspots and provide wintering habitats for migratory birds such as waterfowl arriving from Siberia and Central Asia besides supporting fisheries, agriculture, groundwater recharge, nutrient cycling and carbon sequestration.
However, increasing human encroachment, land conversion, eutrophication, siltation, and climate change are threatening their hydrology and soil quality. The study titled ‘Demystifying the impacts of anthropogenic activities on physicochemical characteristics of soil in four wetlands of Kashmir Valley, India’, in ‘Nature Scientific Reports’,evaluates the impacts of anthropogenic pressures on the soil properties of urbanised Hokersar and Anchar wetlands from Srinagar district and seminatural Manasbal and Shallabugh wetlands from Ganderbal district—between 2019 and 2021.
Hokersar wetland
Hokersar is located around 10 km (6.2 miles) to the northwest of Srinagar. The wetland is an important bird sanctuary providing resting and feeding grounds for numerous birds that migrate from northern regions of Siberia and Central Asia. Encroachments have led to a significant reduction in its size from 18.75 km2 in 1969 to 13 km2 by 2008.
Anchar lake
It is located in the Srinagar district and is connected to the Dal Lake through a channel known as “Amir Khan Nallah”, which flows via Gilsar and Khushal Sar. It serves as a flood basin, receiving excess water from Dal Lake during heavy rains or flooding. The Anchar lake has highly deteriorated due to pollution, encroachments and reduced water quality.
Shallabugh wetland
Shallabugh wetland is a marshland covering an area of 150 hectares. It provides a resting and breeding space for a large number of migratory bird species such as Bar-Headed Geese, White-Heeled Ducks, Shovellers, Red-Crested Pochards, White-Eyed Pochards, Common Teals, Pintails, Mallards, Gadwalls, Coots, Hooks, and Graylag. Communities depend on the wetland for fishing and reed harvesting.
Manasbal lake
Located in the Safapora area of Ganderbal District in Jammu and Kashmir, Manasbal is a pristine freshwater lake that provides a resting and breeding space for a large number of aquatic birds in the region. The lake is a source of rootstocks of the lotus plant, which grow abundantly in its waters, which are harvested, marketed, and consumed by the local population.
The urban Anchar and Hokesar wetlands have been exposed to multiple anthropogenic disturbances as compared to the Manasbal and Shallabugh wetlands.
Wetland soils are naturally waterlogged and low in oxygen. Plants adapted to soggy, low-oxygen environments thrive in the wetlands. When human activities disturb these ecosystems, the soil chemistry begins to shift in subtle but significant ways.
The analysis revealed that:
Rising soil pH signals degradation
pH values indicate the acidity or alkalinity of the soil. Lower pH values indicate an acidic environment, while higher pH values signify the alkalinity of the soil. pH can affect wetland soil by controlling nutrient availability, solubility of metals, and the types of plants and organisms that grow in the soil. Extremes in pH can harm ecosystems by leading to the leaching of toxic metals, the loss of sensitive species, and disruptions in the food web.
Altered/disturbed wetlands exposed to anthropogenic activities, such as the Hokesar wetland, showed higher pH values compared to the relatively undisturbed wetlands, such as the Shallabugh wetland. Higher pH values can disrupt the delicate balance that wetland plants and microbes rely on, speeding up the breakdown of organic matter and releasing acids that further degrade soil chemistry. Degraded areas often have reduced vegetation cover, which means less organic material is added to the soil. With fewer plants and slower decomposition, acid release declines, pushing pH even higher—a feedback loop of degradation.
Disturbed wetland soils showed higher electrical conductivity
Electrical conductivity of soil provides information on the concentration of dissolved salts such as potassium, sodium, calcium, and magnesium that carry electrical charges in the soil. Wetlands such as Hokesar that were polluted by deposition of fine sediments, nutrients, and salts from runoff from nearby lands showed higher electrical conductivity (EC). Electrical conductivity and pH values of soil were correlated, highlighting their interdependence in disturbed wetland ecosystems. Thus, rising pH and EC are red flags—signs that the wetland’s natural buffering capacity is being eroded by human pressure.
Soil bulk density was high in disturbed wetlands
Soil bulk density indicates how tightly soil particles are packed. Higher bulk density is an indicator of poor soil health, as it means fewer soil binders, less biological activity (like earthworms and root growth), and a loss of fine particles like clay and silt
The study found that agricultural soils had the highest bulk density, followed by plantation and fallow areas. This was due to intensive farming practices like tilling, weed control, and crop harvesting. In contrast, marshy wetlands—especially Shallabugh—showed the lowest bulk density due to their high organic matter and water saturation, making the soil naturally porous, and ideal for supporting wetland biodiversity. Hokersar recorded the highest bulk density, indicating soil compaction and ecological stress.
Soil organic carbon levels were high in undisturbed wetlands
Soil Organic Carbon (SOC) represents the amount of carbon retained in the soil after the decomposition of the organic content, such as decaying plant and animal residues due to microbes and the presence of humus. It is a key indicator of soil fertility, microbial activity, and carbon sequestration potential.
Soil organic carbon (SOC) levels were significantly higher in the undisturbed Shallabugh wetland, indicating healthier soil conditions and greater resilience to environmental stress. In contrast, disturbed wetlands like Hokersar and Anchar showed depleted SOC due to human activities.
Soil nitrogen levels were higher in undisturbed wetlands
Nitrogen is a vital nutrient for plant growth, microbial activity, and overall soil fertility. In wetlands, nitrogen exists in various forms—ammonium, nitrate, and organic nitrogen—and is closely tied to vegetation density, organic matter, and microbial processes.
Soil nitrogen levels were significantly higher in the undisturbed Shallabugh wetland, reflecting better soil fertility and microbial activity. Disturbed wetlands like Hokersar and Anchar showed reduced nitrogen due to vegetation loss and human-induced degradation.
Soil phosphorous levels were lower in disturbed sites
Phosphorus (P) is essential for plant growth and soil carbon storage. It also plays a key role in regulating the physiological responses of plants to stresses due to droughts, salinity and extreme temperatures
In wetland soils, phosphorus availability is influenced by organic matter, pH, moisture, and land use. It plays a key role in nutrient cycling and supports wetland biodiversity.
Phosphorus levels in Kashmir’s wetlands were significantly lower in disturbed sites like Hokersar and Anchar, while the undisturbed Shallabugh wetland showed higher phosphorus availability—highlighting the role of vegetation and organic matter in maintaining soil fertility.
Potassium levels were lower in disturbed sites
Potassium levels in Kashmir’s wetlands were significantly lower in disturbed sites like Hokersar and Anchar, while the undisturbed Shallabugh wetland maintained higher potassium availability—highlighting the role of vegetation and organic matter in nutrient retention.
The presence of potassium in the soil is crucial to the health of both soil and plants and helps produce healthier plants that are more resistant to diseases and pests. Soil with adequate potassium is more fertile and has better structure.
Calcium and magnesium
Calcium (Ca) improves soil structure, thereby increasing water penetration and providing a more favourable soil environment for the growth of plant roots and soil microorganisms. Magnesium (Mg) is a component of the chlorophyll molecule. Therefore, it is essential for photosynthesis.
Undisturbed wetlands such as Shallabugh had higher Ca and Mg levels due to natural weathering, biological activity, and erosion. Disturbed wetlands such as Hokersar and Anchar had lower Ca and Mg availability because of soil degradation, reduced vegetation, and altered hydrology.
Heavy metal concentrations were high in disturbed wetlands
Concentrations of heavy metals such as iron, copper, zinc, nickel, manganese and cadmium were higher in disturbed wetlands like Hokesar and Anchal compared to undisturbed ones. High levels of metal accumulation could be due to increased tourism, transportation, industrial waste, and hospitality infrastructure, thus reducing soil fertility.
Lead was found in high proportions in disturbed sites in spring, followed by summer and autumn, with the lowest values in winter. Fertilisers, weathering of bedrocks, erosion, and waste from nearby agricultural fields and domestic sewage collectively contributed to elevated lead levels in wetland areas during spring and summer. A positive correlation was observed between pH and heavy metals in the soil.
Bacterial counts were higher in soils from undisturbed wetlands
Soil bacteria have an important role, as they aid in the decomposition of organic materials when moisture content is high. Besides, they are known to be nitrogen fixers and disease suppressors. The undisturbed Shallabugh wetland had a very high bacterial count as high organic carbon supported microbial growth, helping nutrient cycling and soil fertility. The disturbed wetlands namely Hokersar and Anchal, had low bacterial counts as encroachment and reduced vegetation lowered organic matter, starving microbes and weakening soil processes.
Undisturbed wetland soils had abundant spores that enhanced nutrient intake
The undisturbed Shallabugh wetland had the highest Vesicular Arbuscular Mycorrhiza (VAM) spore population. VAM are spores of a type of fungus that colonise the roots of over 90% of plant species, forming specialised structures that help in absorption of nutrients and water uptake to help plants with nutrition and growth and improve soil fertility. Hokersar wetland had the lowestVAM spore population due to lack of vegetation cover.
Adopting integrated wetland management practices
While evidence from the study shows that anthropogenic disturbances are degrading soil health, adopting integrated wetland management practices that include regular monitoring, land-use regulation, and stakeholder engagement to prevent further encroachment and degradation of the wetlands is crucial to help maintain wetland productivity and support biodiversity of the fragile ecosystems of Kashmir.
Conduct more studies on wetlands
The results call for the need to conduct more studies on other wetlands in the region across different seasons to capture the spatio-temporal variability in soil responses to anthropogenic stressors.
Use of technology to monitor wetlands
Integration of geospatial tools and long-term monitoring frameworks can aid in early detection of degradation and help in the formulation of targeted conservation strategies.
The study makes one thing clear. The future of Kashmir’s wetlands is being shaped not just by climate change, but by everyday human actions. Soil degradation is a slow process, but its impacts are lasting. Protecting wetlands means protecting the invisible life beneath them. Without timely action, Kashmir risks losing ecosystems that have supported water, wildlife, and livelihoods for generations.