How machines are rewriting the story of India’s rice

Rice has fed India for thousands of years right from the terraced fields of Uttarakhand to the deltas of Tamil Nadu. It is more than a crop; it is a cultural constant, a grain that sustains nearly half of the nation’s population. Yet, beneath this continuity, Indian rice cultivation is undergoing a quiet transformation. The plough and the puddle are slowly giving way to the power tiller and the transplanter. Mechanisation, once seen as the preserve of large farms, is steadily redefining how India grows its most important staple.

From hand to machine: A slow but steady shift

For centuries, rice farming in India has depended on human and animal power. Small, fragmented landholdings nearly 80% of Indian farms are smaller than two hectares, have long kept modern machinery at bay. But with growing population pressures, water scarcity, and a rural labour crunch, the traditional system is straining. The old image of farmers ankle-deep in water, transplanting seedlings by hand, is becoming economically unsustainable.

The new study ‘A critical review on rice cultivation and mechanization level in Indian perspective’ by Prabhat K Guru et al., published in Results in Engineering (June 2025), captures this transition in striking detail. It documents how India’s agricultural landscape has evolved from manual labour to machine-assisted cultivation and how unevenly this shift has unfolded across the country.

The researchers trace a clear link between farm power availability and productivity: as machines replace muscles, yields rise. Between 1975 and 2022, India’s average farm power availability increased from 0.46 to 1.34 kilowatts per tonne of crop produced — and productivity rose in near-lockstep.

Still, India’s mechanization level — around 47% overall and 53% for rice — lags far behind nations like China (85%), Japan (almost 100%), and the U.S. (over 90%). The reason? The size of the average Indian farm makes it difficult to justify owning large equipment. That’s where the next revolution comes in.

Custom hiring: Machines for the many

Instead of owning a tractor or combine harvester, thousands of small farmers are now renting them. The rise of Custom Hiring Centres (CHCs), often supported by the government’s Sub-Mission on Agricultural Mechanization (SMAM) or NABARD, is changing the economics of mechanization. These centres let farmers hire equipment for specific tasks such as ploughing, threshing, or harvesting at affordable rates.

According to the paper, this model is bridging the mechanization gap in rural India. It has not only reduced drudgery but also improved timeliness a critical factor in rice cultivation, where delayed operations can cut yields dramatically. The spread of CHCs has also inspired a wave of private innovation: agri-tech startups now offer “Uber for tractors” models, IoT-enabled precision planting, and drones that monitor crop health and water stress. Together, they’re pushing Indian rice farming toward a data-driven future.

The geography of mechanization

The map of mechanization in India is uneven. Punjab, Haryana, Andhra Pradesh, and Tamil Nadu — where large landholdings and irrigation facilities dominate — report mechanization levels well above the national average. Their rice yields exceed four tonnes per hectare. In contrast, eastern states like Bihar, Odisha, and Chhattisgarh, despite vast rice acreage, lag behind in productivity, with mechanization levels below 40%.

The researchers underline that farm power availability — measured in kilowatts per hectare — is the single biggest differentiator. Only eight Indian states have reached the national target of 3 kW/ha, set for 2030. Without addressing this energy gap, equitable mechanization remains elusive.

Three ways to grow rice: A changing equation

India’s farmers follow three primary rice cultivation methods — each shaped by regional ecology and resource availability:

1. Dry Direct Sowing of Rice (DDSR) – Seeds are sown directly into dry soil using planters or drills. This method saves water and time but requires precise weed management.

2. Wet Direct Sowing of Rice (WDSR) – Pre-germinated seeds are sown into puddled, wet fields using drum seeders.

3. Transplanting – Seedlings raised in nurseries are transplanted into puddled fields, either manually or mechanically.

Traditionally, transplanting has been the norm. But the rising cost and scarcity of agricultural labour have opened the door for mechanical transplanting and direct seeding. Both promise significant savings — but each comes with trade-offs.

The promise and pitfalls of mechanical transplanting

Mechanical rice transplanters, once seen only in research farms, are now making their way into farmers’ fields from Punjab to Kerala. The study highlights that compared to manual transplanting, which requires around 25 labour-days per hectare, mechanical transplanters can do the job in just 1.4 labour-days. The savings are staggering: up to 80–87% reduction in labour costs, and yield gains ranging from 0.12 to 0.35 tonnes per hectare depending on the season.

Different models — from walk-behind four-row machines to self-propelled eight-row versions — are now available. Yet, as the researchers note, the technology is not foolproof. Its success depends heavily on preparing a “mat-type” nursery for seedlings, which consumes significant energy and skill. In irregular or hilly terrains, mechanical transplanters struggle to plant evenly, leaving gaps that require manual correction.

Still, the economic case remains strong. Studies cited in the paper from Kerala and Assam show net income gains of 68–90% with mechanized transplanting compared to traditional methods. For regions battling rural labour shortages, it may be the only sustainable path forward.

Direct seeding of rice: A growing alternative

From laser-guided land levellers that ensure even water distribution to precision drills that meter every seed, the arsenal of modern rice machinery is expanding. The paper lists dozens of implements — rotavators, reversible ploughs, drum seeders, self-propelled reapers, and straw balers — each designed to replace a traditional step in rice farming.

Laser land levelling, in particular, stands out as a game-changer. By creating perfectly level fields, it saves water, reduces fertilizer loss, and improves yields. Farmers in Haryana and Punjab who adopted the technique report up to 20% water savings and more uniform crop stands. Yet, for many smallholders, the upfront cost of such equipment remains a hurdle — again highlighting the importance of shared access through CHCs or cooperatives.

Managing nutrients smarter

Mechanization alone doesn’t guarantee higher productivity. Nutrient management remains the backbone of rice yields — and a weak link in many smallholder systems. The study warns that improper fertilizer use is widespread: nitrogen (N) is often overapplied, while phosphorus (P) and potassium (K) are neglected. This imbalance leads not only to wasted money but also to pollution, eutrophication, and soil degradation.

Innovations like deep placement of urea briquettes — where slow-release nitrogen pellets are inserted beneath the soil — have shown dramatic results. The method boosts nitrogen-use efficiency by over 90%, raises yields by 25%, and cuts fertilizer use almost in half. Mechanical applicators now allow farmers to perform this task quickly and evenly, reducing drudgery and cost.

In the long run, the integration of precision nutrient management, guided by sensors and soil maps, could transform rice fertility practices. With AI-based decision tools, farmers can apply “just enough” fertilizer at the right time and place — improving both profits and the planet’s health.

The digital turn: AI and IoT in the fields

The final frontier of rice mechanization may not be mechanical at all — but digital. Artificial intelligence (AI) and the Internet of Things (IoT) are quietly entering India’s paddy fields, riding on the back of cheap sensors and smartphones. Drones now monitor crop health, detect pests, and even estimate yields. Machine-learning algorithms analyse satellite imagery to predict irrigation needs or nitrogen stress.

These technologies, the study argues, could redefine agricultural decision-making. From seed selection to disease detection, AI is already helping farmers make more informed choices. Deep learning systems using convolutional neural networks (CNNs) can identify rice diseases from leaf images with remarkable accuracy, enabling faster intervention and reducing pesticide use.

While these tools remain out of reach for many smallholders today, the trend is unmistakable. As connectivity spreads and costs fall, India’s rice fields are becoming data fields.

Lessons from abroad

India’s mechanization journey can draw lessons from its Asian neighbours. Japan’s rice farming became fully mechanized in the 1970s through coordinated government support and small-machine innovation. Vietnam and Thailand have rapidly scaled up mechanization through subsidies and training programs, while the Philippines, with smaller farms and fewer resources, is still catching up.

The key takeaway, according to the researchers, is that policy support and scale-appropriate technology matter as much as machinery itself. For India, this means localized innovations — lightweight transplanters for eastern states, multi-crop planters for small plots, and shared service models — must take centre stage.

Toward a sustainable rice future

India stands at a crossroads. The country must feed a population that will exceed 1.5 billion by 2030, even as water tables drop and rural labour migrates to cities. Mechanization, if done thoughtfully, offers a way out of this bind — not as an end in itself, but as part of a larger shift toward sustainability.

In many ways, the story of mechanized rice in India mirrors the story of the nation itself — complex, uneven, and full of contradictions, but moving unmistakably forward. As the paper puts it, “Mechanization is not replacing the farmer; it is redefining what it means to farm.”