As climate change tightens its grip and freshwater resources dwindle, a groundbreaking new study focuses attention on one of India’s most vital yet vulnerable agricultural regions—the Ganga-Yamuna Doab. This fertile swathe of land between two great rivers has long sustained India’s food security, but its future now hinges on how wisely it manages its most critical resource: water.
Published in Environmental Challenges (June 2025), the study ‘Water footprint analysis of wheat cultivation in the Ganga Yamuna Doab region – Implications for sustainable water management’ undertakes a detailed water footprint analysis of wheat cultivation across 26 districts of the Doab region in Uttar Pradesh. The findings reveal a complex web of over-extraction, pollution, and missed opportunities that demand urgent action for a sustainable agricultural future.
The Ganga-Yamuna Doab lies at the heart of the Indo-Gangetic Plain, stretching from the Sivalik foothills of the Himalayas to the confluence of the two rivers in Prayagraj. This region produces around one-third of India’s wheat and over one-fourth of its rice. But behind this agricultural bounty lies a story of stress and over-dependence.
Despite lying between two perennial rivers, the Doab is experiencing critical water stress. According to national assessments, over 60 percent of groundwater wells in the region show serious depletion. The problem is compounded by erratic monsoon patterns, inefficient irrigation, and an over-reliance on chemical fertilizers.
Against this backdrop, the water footprint concept provides a powerful lens to assess the sustainability of agricultural practices in the region. Developed in the early 2000s, the water footprint method calculates the total volume of freshwater used in the production of crops, including irrigation water (called blue water), rainwater stored in soil (called green water), and the water required to dilute pollutants like chemical fertilizers (called grey water).
The study found that on average, producing one ton of wheat in the Ganga-Yamuna Doab requires 1,165 cubic metres of water. This water footprint is significantly lower than the global average of 1,830 cubic metres per ton, but still points to high freshwater use in absolute terms.
Breaking down this total water footprint reveals more:
Blue water—freshwater from rivers and groundwater—accounts for a staggering 88 percent of the total.
Grey water, which reflects the level of pollution from fertilizer use, contributes 8 percent.
Green water, the most sustainable source (rainwater stored in the soil), contributes only 4 percent.
The overwhelming dominance of blue water suggests an unsustainable reliance on irrigation and groundwater pumping. “This kind of dependence makes the region highly vulnerable to climate variability and declining river flows,” the author’s caution.
A tale of two districts
There is wide variation across the 26 districts studied. Some districts like Hapur, Baghpat, and Kasganj demonstrate relatively low total water footprints—under 900 cubic metres per ton of wheat—thanks to better soil, use of improved seed varieties, and more efficient irrigation.
But others tell a different story. Prayagraj district (formerly Allahabad) recorded the highest water footprint at nearly 2,000 cubic metres per ton. Kanpur Nagar, Kaushambi, and Hathras were not far behind. These high values are often due to excessive irrigation and overuse of fertilizers, coupled with poor soil water retention.
Soil type plays a major role in this variation. Districts with Luvisol and Cambisol soils—known for good nutrient retention and water-holding capacity—tend to have lower water footprints. These soils help reduce the need for frequent irrigation and intensive fertiliser application.
The study’s focus on grey water is a vital addition to water footprint analysis. This component reflects the volume of freshwater required to dilute pollutants, particularly nitrogen, phosphate, and potassium from fertilisers. The average grey water footprint across the Ganga-Yamuna Doab was 98 cubic metres per ton—nearly double the national average of 56 cubic metres per ton.
Districts like Ghaziabad and Kanpur Nagar saw alarmingly high grey water footprints, linked to urban expansion, peri-urban farming, and excessive chemical use. “This is not just a farming issue—it’s a water quality crisis,” the study notes. Runoff from these pollutants threatens both human health and aquatic ecosystems. Reducing grey water use through better nutrient management is crucial to curbing this silent threat.
Green water—rainwater stored in soil—is the most sustainable water source for agriculture. But in the Doab, it plays a surprisingly minor role. The average green water footprint was only 40 cubic metres per ton, and 19 out of 26 districts reported values below this figure.
Districts like Fatehpur and Kasganj reported slightly higher green water use due to more rainfed cultivation and better soil moisture retention. But overall, the study suggests a missed opportunity to harness green water more effectively.
Encouraging rainwater harvesting, better soil health practices, and mulching could help shift the balance away from blue water and reduce pressure on overdrawn aquifers.
The study highlights how rapidly expanding cities like Ghaziabad and Kanpur are transforming agricultural dynamics in the region. As farmland is converted into real estate and infrastructure, the remaining agricultural land becomes more intensively farmed—with more irrigation and more fertilizers. This leads to rising blue and grey water footprints, especially in peri-urban zones.
Climate change only adds to the pressure. Warmer winters, unpredictable rainfall, and declining Himalayan glacier flows threaten to reduce both surface and groundwater availability. This could push farmers to rely even more on synthetic inputs, further driving up grey water pollution and production costs.
According to the researchers, this feedback loop—of declining water availability, rising input use, and higher pollution—poses a major risk to long-term agricultural sustainability in the region.
The study offers a clear roadmap for action:
This study makes one thing abundantly clear: the Ganga-Yamuna Doab is at a tipping point. With its vast agricultural output, dense population, and environmental pressures, the region is a microcosm of the water crisis facing much of India.
But it is also a place of opportunity. By embracing smarter farming, better policies, and stronger institutions, the Doab can become a model for water-secure agriculture in an age of climate change. The study advocates for the adoption of precision farming to improve water and fertiliser efficiency. Practices like site-specific irrigation and real-time data monitoring are essential to reduce waste, enhance yields, and ensure long-term sustainability. Despite data from credible sources, limitations remain due to variability in cropping periods and reliance on secondary data, which affect water footprint accuracy.
India’s food security, public health, and rural livelihoods depend on it. The time to act is now.