Compiled by Nitya Jacob and Sunetra Lala, Resource Team
Issue Date: 26 August 2011
From Brecht Mommen, United Nations Children’s Fund (UNICEF), Bhubaneshwar
Posted 29 July 2011
I work for UNICEF in Orissa as the WASH specialist. My main task is to provide support in improving access to water supply and sanitation in rural areas. I have found that access to safe water have been largely undermined by poor operation and maintenance (O&M). The contributing factors are:
To overcome this, and improve rural water supply, I am seeking instances where better O&M has improved the water supply. I would like to learn of the modalities that have helped improve O&M and consequently, the availability and quality of water. Of special interest is the involvement of women’s groups and the private sector. I also want to know of accountability mechanisms. I am looking for examples from all parts of India.
For this, I request the Community members to share their experiences regarding:
Your responses will help us devise ways to improve O&M issues in rural water supply in Orissa.
Responses were received, with thanks, from
*Offline Contribution
Poor operation and maintenance (O&M) is the main cause of failure of water supply systems in India, both in urban and rural. In rural areas, this is exacerbated by the slow response times of agencies tasked with O&M. Dissecting the reasons for this reveals diverse root causes – lack of planning for O&M while designing a water supply system, use of sub-standard material, no source protection, untrained operators, no way to determine or collect user charges, a disconnect between the engineers of the concerned agency and panchayats (or their sub-committee), and little of no community involvement.
There are as many ways to improve O&M as there are root causes. In Tamil Nadu, for example, government engineers have started working with communities, focusing on water as a scarce resource. The driver was the need to raise user charges, but under a change management initiative, they took the approach that water has to be conserved. They supplemented this with “non-structural” measures such as democratizing governance, changing attitudes in order to build community ownership, and responsibility for water service delivery. This in turn works when service providers willingly share power and partner with the community in a new governance paradigm and took a non-prescriptive or non-target-driven approach emphasizing raising awareness of the importance of managing water as a common resource; they also provided space for community action and decision making. This system has a built-in dual accountability mechanism, where engineers are accountable to the community, and the community is responsible for stopping wasteful use of water.
There are several instances where the community has taken the initiative for O&M, as in the Gram Vikas case in Orissa. In the 943 villages the NGO has developed water supply systems, people have raised a corpus of Rs. 1,000 per family (on an average). All families agree to build a toilet and bathing room. The NGO trains a few people in masonry and plumbing while the villagers gather material for the toilets, bathing rooms and water supply system. Water is sourced from a renewable source and pumped to an elevated water reservoir and supplied round the clock to houses. A volumetric charge partly covers the cost of electricity and O&M while the government pays for the rest.
In another example from the state, the Department of Water Resources started the Orissa Community Tank Management Project under which Pani Panchayats were responsible for the O&M. they were held accountable for proper maintenance of village tanks through participatory walkthroughs to assess the existing situation, and the situation during plan implementation, post implementation and as and when required. These people conducted social audits, and put in place a proper grievance redressal system. The Orissa Drinking Water Project led to setting up a large pilot titled "2-Tier maintenance system", mainly of handpumps in 3 coastal districts (undivided Cuttack, Puri and Balasore). Self-Employed Mechanics looked after 25-30 handpumps and each person got a fee of Rs. 150 per pump per year and also a bicycle and tools.
In Kerala, under the Rural Water Supply and Sanitation Project (called Jalanidhi) village level Beneficiary Groups (BGs) successfully planned, designed, implemented and managed the O&M for rural water supply. The 24-month project cycle included one year for social mobilisation. BGs contributed 10 per cent of the capital cost, the panchayat paid 15 per cent and the government, the rest. This co-ownership also brought in aspects of co-management, so schemes were managed by local stakeholders and not NGOs. The government trained local youth in O&M; as this was a paid service, it became an income avenue for them. The BGs sourced the materials. Additionally, the government trained BG members on book-keeping, monitoring and leadership development, and women participated in the process. This process again had accountability built in since communities were involved in the entire project lifecycle.
In Assam, the Public Health Engineering Department (PHED) is tasked with rural water supply. In water-stressed parts of the state, people have been more willing to own the O&M process, but in other areas, where they rely on their own sources such as wells or tubewells, they are reluctant to do so. PHED has started setting up users’ committees for the O&M of each public water supply system (that covers more than one village). These committees are linked to the panchayats, but panchayats have been reluctant to take up the slack. This indicates that community involvement and water scarcity are two critical drivers for better O&M. The Government of Assam in 2010 introduced two awards users’ committees that have performed well, demonstrating its commitment to the scheme.
In Uttar Pradesh, WaterAid India and Gramonnati Sansthan in Mahoba have set up four technical centres in all the four blocks which offer O&M and repair services of water and sanitation. They attend to breakdowns in 24 hours have a women’s mechanic team. It runs on a business model, in which the centres charge for repairs.
In Gujarat, the Gujarat Water Supply & Sewerage Board (GWSSB) set up and runs regional water supply schemes covering a group of villages. Water for these usually comes from a perennial source like the Narmada River. The board sub-contracts O&M to private vendors. However, the panchayat concerned looks after individual water supply schemes, covering a single village. The panchayat employs trained operators to run the system. The drivers for O&M include social inclusion and transparency, capacity building, financing O&M and incentives for good performance.
Under the Gujarat Environment Health Improvement Programme of the Aga Khan Foundation, an eight year two-phase programme to deliver sustainable water supply and environmental sanitation services to a total of 130 villages in Junagadh, Patan and Jamnagar districts of Gujarat, clear project guidelines have ensured the accountability of all stakeholders including the community. The Self-Employed Women’s Organisation has trained women volunteers to maintain handpumps and liaise with panchayats and GWSSB.
In Jharkhand, an NGO has trained local youth on hand pump repair and maintenance. As a result, these youth have repaired defunct tubewells, and maintain other water sources.
Community mobilisation, followed by a felt need for water (scarcity or contamination), are the two main drivers for better O&M. Accountability mechanisms can be built into the process of community mobilisation, as some of these examples show. All these examples have been well documented; the references are given below.
Assam
User Committees improve public participation in O&M (from Nripendra Sarma, Public Health Engineering Department, Guwahati)
People in Assam were by and large not involved with the O&M of rural water supply schemes of the government. However, recently the Public Health Engineering Department has successfully formed user committees in some waters-stressed areas for managing each scheme and liaison with PHED. The committees’ active participation has improved accountability among all, the smooth functioning of the schemes and cost recovery.
Gujarat
Panchayats take ownership of O&M (from Anita Miya, Aga Khan Planning and Building Service India (AKPBS-I), Mumbai)
Several parts of Gujarat are drought prone. To address this, AKPBS-I implemented the Gujarat Environment Health Improvement Programme under which it made several water schemes. It focused on a strong community mobilisation programme, training water supply operators, and earmarking O&M funds. The organisation found that even five years after the programme ended, the village panchayats maintain the schemes, indicating sustainable O&M. Read more.
Individual schemes under panchayat control (from Hemant Khosla, United Nations Children’s Fund (UNICEF), New Delhi)
To increase community ownership of O&M in Gujarat, the government has made panchayats responsible for the upkeep of Individual Water Supply Schemes (IWSS). They hire operators and mechanics who are paid out of panchayat funds. Many villages levy volumetric tariffs to meet O&M costs. There are many instances of successful community involvement and ownership of the drinking water supply from all districts of Gujarat. Read more.
SEWA women take charge of O&M (from Dinesh Kumar, Institute for Resource Analysis and Policy, Hyderabad)
Women suffer the most from defunct rural water schemes. The Self Employed Women’s Association (SEWA) has trained village women volunteers to take care of the maintenance of the systems, including repair and replacement of small mechanical components, and liaison with the office bearers of local panchayats and district wing of GWSSB to arrange for higher level repair and maintenance, whenever needed. This has led to improved O&M. Read more.
Jharkhand
Youth trained to take charge of tubewells (from Mamta Borgoyary, FXB India Suraksha, Noida)
Rural water supply is in bad shape in many parts of Jharkhand and the state has yet to get a functional panchayat system. The NGO, FXB India Suraksha, focused on a village, and trained local youth on hand pump repair and maintenance. These youth have repaired three defunct tubewells, and maintain other water sources. Construction is carried out with community participation. As a result there has been a reduction in water-borne diseases. Read more.
Kerala
Jalanidhi Project: 3,681 Schemes Completed (from Annie George, Building and Enabling Disaster Resilience of Coastal Communities (BEDROC), Nagapattinam)
Under the Kerala state government's water supply programme, 3,681 water supply systems, managed by 3,891 beneficiary groups have been completed as on June-end 2008. The beneficiary communities are operating and maintaining these schemes, demonstrating their willingness to participate in similar programmes. Read more
Orissa
Communities brought in for tank rehabilitation (from Sonali Patnaik, Arupa Mission Research Foundation, Bhubaneswar)
In Orissa, people rely on tanks for multiple uses of water. Over time tanks get silted and need cleaning, but people usually do not pay any fees. To address this, the Orissa Community Tank Management Project developed a system in which Pani Panchayats would be made responsible for O&M through an agreement. This made people feel they had to ensure their contributions did not go to waste. Around 300 tanks are in the process of being rehabilitated in this manner.
Villagers take charge of water supply and sanitation(from Joe Madiath, Gram Vikas, Orissa)
To improve rural water supply, Gram Vikas starts with community mobilisation. It first raises a corpus or endowment of Rs. 1000 per family. All families agree to build a quality toilet and a separate bathing room. It trains young daily wage earners in masonry and plumbing who construct toilets and bathing rooms. The Government gives subsidy to the BPL families. This approach has covered nearly 1000 villages so far. Read more.
Uttar Pradesh
WaterAid works with local NGO to set up technical centres for O&M delivery, (from Johnson Rhenius Jeyaseelan, WaterAid, Lucknow)
In Mahoba the response to breakdowns in water supply is extremely slow, leading to hardships for people in rural areas. WaterAid India Regional Office North and Gramonnati Sansthan in Mahoba set up four technical centres which offer O&M and repair services of water and sanitation. These have trained mechanics who attend to breakdowns in 24 hours. The centre runs on a business model so that it can be self-sustained. Read more.
Guidance Book on Social Accountability in Rural Water Supply of Himachal Pradesh (from Anandi Mehra, Deutsche Gesellschaft für Internationale Zusammenarbeit (GIZ), Himachal Pradesh)
Book; by Gesellschaft für Internationale Zusammenarbeit; New Delhi; June 2011;
Available at http://issuu.com/aanandiimehra/docs/saminrws
Is a case study on the pilot testing of Social Accountability in Rural Water Supply in selected panchayats of two blocks in the state of Himachal Pradesh
Securing clean environment: The FXB experience (from Mamta Borgoyary, FXB India Suraksha, Noida)
Brochure; by FXB India Suraksha; Noida;
Available at ftp://ftp.solutionexchange.net.in/public/wes/cr/res-29071101.pdf (PDF; Size: 3.12MB)
FXB India Suraksha's activities which include facilitating access to safe water and sanitation facilities in rural areas
From Anita Miya, Aga Khan Planning and Building Service India, Mumbai
Gujarat Environmental Health Improvement Programme
Report; by Aga Khan Planning and Building Services (AKPBS,I); Gujarat;
Available at ftp://ftp.solutionexchange.net.in/public/wes/cr/res-29071102.pdf (PDF; Size: 104KB)
Describes the O&M activities and responsibility plan taken up under the Gujarat Environment Health Improvement Programme for water and sanitation services
O&M Calender
Manual; by Aga Khan Planning and Building Services (AKPBS,I); Gujarat;
Available at ftp://ftp.solutionexchange.net.in/public/wes/cr/res-29071103.pdf (PDF; Size: 20KB)
Outlines the entire planning process which helped AKPBS,I in facilitating and institutionalizing O&M at village levels
Policy Insights on User Charges from a Rural Water Supply Project: A Counterintuitive View from South India (from Vibhu Nayar, Tamil Nadu - Irrigated Agriculture Modernisation and Water-bodies Restoration and Management (TN-IAMWARM) Project, Chennai)
Article; by Vibhu Nayar and A. J. James; TN-IAMWARM Project and Pragmatix Research and Advisory Services Pvt. Ltd; International Journal of Water Resources Development; UK; September 2010;
Available at http://tandfprod.literatumonline.com/doi/pdf/10.1080/07900627.2010.491973 (PDF; Size: 153KB)
Traces the process of change with regard to O&M, driven by democratization of governance undertaken along with engineers in the south Indian state of Tamil Nadu
Evaluation and lesson learning on DfID support to Andhra Pradesh-Lessons Learnt Document on Municipal Service Delivery for the Poor in Andhra Pradesh (from Ramakrishna Nallathiga, Centre for Good Governance, Hyderabad)
Report; by Centre for Good Governance; Hyderabad; 2008;
Available at http://www.cgg.gov.in/dfid/08050158_CG_BK01_120p.pdf (PDF; Size: 37.1MB)
Describes the O&M Plan in Andhra Pradesh that involves participation of community, which renders it more community oriented, reinforces accountability of implementation
Barefoot Hydrologists (from Jyotiraj Patra, Centre for the Environment and Public Policy, Bhubaneswar)
Report; by Deltares; The Netherlands;
Available at http://public.deltares.nl/display/BFH/Home
How trained barefoot hydrologists help in strengthening the overall institutional framework of O&M at the community level
An ecology of vulnerability: Sewerage in Ahmedabad, India (from Stephanie Tam, Northwestern University, USA)
Research Paper; by Stephanie Tam; Northwestern University; Harvard Graduate School of Design; 2011;
Available at http://dl.dropbox.com/u/5192816/Ecology_of_Vulnerability.pdf (PDF; Size: 46MB)
Discusses the problems with “self-help” sewerage O&M in slums and in the city of Ahmedabad
From Hemant Khosla, United Nations Children’s Fund (UNICEF), New Delhi
Social Processes for Community Participation
Excerpt from book; by Water and Sanitation Management Organization; Ahmedabad; 2006.
Available at ftp://ftp.solutionexchange.net.in/public/wes/cr/res-29071104.pdf, (PDF, 259 Kb)
Outlines the process of engendering community participation in water and sanitation programmes to create a buy-in from the users for these services
Operation and Maintenance
Excerpt from book; by Water and Sanitation Management Organization; Ahmedabad; 2006.
Available at ftp://ftp.solutionexchange.net.in/public/wes/cr/res-29071108.pdf, (PDF, 201 Kb)
Defines what is meant by maintenance and the steps for effective upkeep of water supply systems in rural areas
Users as Managers: Facilitating local self-governance for drinking water supply
Book; by Water and Sanitation Management Organization; Ahmedabad; 2006.
Available at ftp://ftp.solutionexchange.net.in/public/wes/cr/res-29071105.pdf, (PDF, 4 Mb)
Describes the rationale, process, challenges and systems for fixing and collecting water tariffs in Gujarat
Women empowerment
Excerpt from book; by Water and Sanitation Management Organization; Ahmedabad; 2006.
Available at ftp://ftp.solutionexchange.net.in/public/wes/cr/res-29071106.pdf (PDF, 345 Kb)
Section of the publication that deals with women’s role in maintaining rural water supply schemes, and how to mainstream them in planning and execution
From Sunetra Lala, Water Community
Scaling Up Community Management in South Africa: Alfred Nzo District Municipality Case Study
Report; by Jean De La Harpe; IRC International Water and Sanitation Centre; The Netherlands; May 2003;
Available at http://www.irc.nl/page/15447
Examines the support arrangements for community-based water service providers and the extent to which Community based models comply with legislative requirements
Community Management of Water Supply Services: the Changing Circumstances and Needs of Institutional Support
Report; by Mariela García Vargas; Universidad del Valle; IRC International Water and Sanitation Centre; The Netherlands;
Available at http://www.irc.nl/page/24560
Seeks to characterise the challenges confronted by community management of water supply systems, as well as the institutional solutions that exist for the sector
Available at http://www.irc.nl/page/1842
Intended for planners concerned with the challenging problem of how to implement effective O&M of rural water supply and sanitation services in developing countries
Sustainable Community Management of Urban Water and Sanitation Schemes (A Training Manual)
Training Manual; by Vivian Castro, Neli Msuya and Charles Makoye; Water and Sanitation Program - Africa; Kenya; 2009;
Available at http://www.wsp.org/wsp/sites/wsp.org/files/publications/africa_training_manual.pdf (PDF; Size: 652KB)
Covers technical issues such as operations and maintenance activities related to water and sanitation, but also has a focus on institutional, managerial and financial issues
Why Gender Matters
Tutorial; UNDP, Capacity Building for Integrated Water Resource Management (Cap-Net); March 2006;
Available at
http://cap-net.org/sites/cap-net.org/files/training_material s/why_gender_matters.pdf (PDF; Size: 1.57MB)
Demonstrates that addressing gender issues in water governance improves efficiency of water use, environmental sustainability, and improves social benefits and equity
Women’s Collective Action and Sustainable Water Management: Case of SEWA’s Water Campaign in Gujarat, India
Report; by Smita Mishra Panda, Institute of Rural Management (IRMA), Consultative Group on International Agricultural Research (CGIAR), Collective Action and Property Rights (CAPRi) and International Food Policy Research Institute; Washington; USA; May 2007;
Available at http://www.capri.cgiar.org/pdf/capriwp61.pdf (PDF; Size: 374KB)
Highlights women's role in Pani Samitis to manage water resources and its positive impact on their empowerment
Mainstreaming Gender in Participatory Irrigation Management: The Case of AKRSP Report; by Shilpa Vasavada; Gender and Water Alliance; Centre for Environment Education and Foundation Books; New Delhi; 2005;
Available at http://www.genderandwater.org/page/5785
Shows that involving women in water supply schemes empowers them, and leads to efficient, effective and equitable management of water resources
Flowing Upstream: Empowering Women through Water Management Initiatives in India
Book; by Sara Ahmed; Centre for Environment Education and Foundation Books; Cambridge University Press India; New Delhi; 2005; Permission Required: Yes, paid publication;
Presents case studies of civil society interventions on issues of women's participation in community based water management systems
Women and Water, Stories from Dewas
Article; Catch Water Newsletter; Centre for Science and Environment; New Delhi; October-November 2002;
Available at http://www.rainwaterharvesting.org/catchwater/oct_nov2002/initiative.htm
Highlights cases where women SHG members have used the SWA Shakti scheme to create community assets for ensuring drinking water supply
Recommended Organizations and Programmes
WaterAid India, New Delhi (from Johnson Rhenius Jeyaseelan, WaterAid, Lucknow)
1st Floor, Nursery School Building, C-3, Gate-1 Nelson Mandela Marg, Vasant Kunj, New Delhi 110070; Tel: 91-11-46084400; Fax: 91-11-46084411; wai@wateraid.org;
http://www.wateraid.org/india/what_we_do/default.asp
Has been working with Gramonnati Sansthan in Mahoba on reduction of lag time of water sources in Mahoba district of Uttar Pradesh, and improved O&M services
Self Employed Women’s Association, Gujarat (from Dinesh Kumar, Institute for Resource Analysis and Policy, Hyderabad)
SEWA Reception Centre, Opp. Victoria Garden, Bhadra, Ahmedabad 380001, Gujarat; Tel: 91-79-25506444; Fax: 91-79-25506446; mail@sewa.org; http://www.sewa.org/About_Us.asp
Has been working in the area of maintenance of rural water supply schemes, particularly decentralized water supply schemes such as hand pump and tube well based schemes
Deutsche Gesellschaft für Internationale Zusammenarbeit (GIZ), New Delhi(from Anandi Mehra)
GIZ Office India, 21, Jor Bagh, New Delhi 110003; Tel: 91-11-24603832; Fax: 91-11-24603831; giz-indien@giz.de; http://www.gtz.de/en/692.htm
Brought out a book which documents a case study on pilot testing of social accountability in rural water supply in selected panchayats in the State of Himachal Pradesh
FXB India Suraksha, Haryana (from Mamta Borgoyary)
A-8, Sector 19, First Floor, Noida, Gautam Buddh Nagar 201301, Haryana; Tel: 91-120-4751900; Fax: 91-120-4751901; info@fxbsuraksha.org; http://www.fxbsuraksha.in/
In Jharkhand, worked with the local youth and through the youth clubs to maintain water sources and to mobilise local participation in all construction activities
Jalanidhi (Kerala Rural Water Supply and Sanitation Project), Kerala (from Annie George, Building and Enabling Disaster Resilience of Coastal Communities (BEDROC), Nagapattinam)
PTC Towers, SS Kovil Road, Thampanoor, Thiruvanthanpuram, Kerala 695001; Tel: 91-471-233700; Fax: 91-471-2337004; mis@jalanidhi.com; http://jalanidhi.com/
State-level project, assisted by the World Bank, and implemented with the state government to provide water and sanitation services involving community participation
United Nations Children’s Fund (UNICEF), New Delhi (from Dipak Roy, Individual Consultant, New Delhi)
73, Lodi Estate, New Delhi 110003; Tel: 91-11-24690401, 24691410; Fax: 91-11-24627521, 24691410; newdelhi@unicef.org; http://www.unicef.org/india/wes.html
Has initiated several projects with community-led O&M systems, and community-based
handpump maintenance and water quality monitoring system in West Bengal
Water and Sanitation Management Organization (WASMO), Gujarat (from Hemant Khosla, United Nations Children’s Fund (UNICEF), New Delhi)
3rd floor, Jal Sewa Bhawan, Opp. Air force headquarters, Sec. 10-A, Gandhinagar 380012, Gujarat; Tel: 91-79-23247170; Fax: 91-79-23247485; wasmo@wasmo.org; www.wasmo.org;
Empowers local communities, such as Gram Panchayats and Pani Samitis, to manage their own water supply schemes, particularly with women’s involvement
Gram Vikas, Orissa(from Joe Madiath, Gram Vikas, Orissa)
Mohuda, Berhampur 760002, Orissa; Tel: 91-680-2261866; Fax: 91-680-2261862; info@gramvikas.org; http://gramvikas.org/
Has motivated people in 943 villages in Orissa to build their water supply systems, which are entirely owned, managed and maintained by the communities themselves
Plan India, New Delhi(from R K Srinivasan)
E-12 Kailash Colony, New Delhi 110048; Tel: 91-11-46558484; Fax: 91-11-46558443; kulasekaran_srinivasan@yahoo.com; http://planindia.org/about-plan
Has been working in the rural areas of Orissa for the provision of safe drinking water to communities
From Stephanie Tam, Northwestern University, USA
Kamdar Swasthya Suraksh Mandal, Gujarat
II Floor, Binori Corner, Under Dr. Shyama Mukharjee Fly Over, Jivrajpark Road, Jivraj Park, Ahmedabad 380051, Gujarat; Tel: 91-79-26611908; Fax: 91-79-26611908; kssm@youtele.com; http://kssm.org.in/about_us.html
Works with manual manhole labourers, where the O&M of sanitation services has been subcontracted to private companies
Navsarjan, Gujarat
Dalit Shakti Kendra, Village Nani Devti, Sanand–Bavla Road, Taluka Sanand, District Ahmedabad
Gujarat; Tel: 91-2717-324323; Fax: 91-2717-287308; admin@navsarjan.org;
Has been addressing the issue of eradicating manual scavenging in Gujarat since 1995
National Sanitation & Environment Improvement Foundation (NASA), Gujarat
10-11, 4th Floor, Sahyog Commercial Center, Opp. Dinbai Tower, Lal Darwaja, Ahmedabad 380001, Gujarat; Tel: 91-79-25503996; info@web-designing-india.com;
http://www.nasafoundation.org/
NASA is active in result-oriented programmes aimed to eliminate diseases by implementing sustainable schemes of pay-and-use toilets and recycling human refuse
Aga Khan Rural Support Programme (India), Gujarat (from Ramakrishna Nallathiga, Centre for Good Governance, Hyderabad)
9th-10th Floor, Corporate House, Opposite Dinesh Hall, Off Ashram Road, Ahmedabad 380009, Gujarat; Tel: 91-79-66312451; Fax: 91-79-66312471; kishore@akrspi.org;
http://www.akdn.org/india_rural.asp
Supports women’s role in water governance and also helps SHG members to access microfinance schemes for minor irrigation and watershed development
From Sunetra Lala, Water Community
Intercooperation, Andhra Pradesh
53/A/4, Sappers Lane, Balamrai, Secunderabad 500003, Andhra Pradesh; Tel: 91-40-27906991;
Fax:91- 40-23356275; info@intercooperation.org.in; http://www.intercooperation.org.in/projects.html
Initiated a pilot project on decentralised natural resource management, including water, with a focus on empowering elected women representatives in rural areas
Samam SHG Women's Federation, Pondicherry Science Forum, Pondicherry
No. 10, II Street, PR Gardens, Reddiarpalayam, Pondicherry 605010; Tel: 91-413-2292432;
erdpsf@gmail.com; http://www.psfcerd.org/User/Samam/Samam.htm
Members of the Federation have ensured availability and quality of drinking water, cleaned overhead tanks through their collective action
Gujarat Women’s Economic Development Corporation Ltd., Gujarat
Udyog Bhavan, Block No. 8/8, Sector 11, Gandhinagar 382017, Gujarat; Tel: 91-712-23222644, 23227287, 23227119; Fax: 91-712-3227129
Provided support to women SHG groups to manage and maintain drinking water storage systems; and has demonstrated success stories of water resources managed by women
WaterHealth India Pvt. Ltd., Andhra Pradesh
No. 206, Ashoka My Home Chambers, 1-8-301, S. P. Road, Secunderabad 500003, Andhra Pradesh; Tel: 91-40-27890307,27890308; Fax: 91-40-27890309; infoindia@waterhealth.com;
Helped set up Water Health Centres for providing safe drinking water, which were managed, monitored and maintained by women
Nripendra Sarma, Public Health Engineering Department, Guwahati
I would like to share the experience of community initiatives to ensure efficient management of rural drinking water supply in Assam.
Drinking Water Supply in rural areas of Assam is managed by the Public Health Engineering Department (PHED), Government of Assam. Apart from the Government initiatives, the individual, household or community group also establishes the some water sources with full ownership of the same. Most of the rural population relied on self-water sources, ranging from shallow unlined / lined dug wells ( Ring Wells ) to the borewells fitted with different types of water lifting devices, like hand pumps, etc. Such water sources are facilitated with private initiatives either by individuals for their own/neighbour’s benefit or by households or community groups to improve their own water supplies, without waiting for help from Government. Water sources established in own initiatives provide additional strengths to the government efforts / approach to ensure sustainable water supply and thus play a major role in ensuring the drinking water security in rural areas. However, in case of the water sources with either partial or total control of the government, although they are nearly always used by the household / community group, yet they become reluctant for owning its responsibility for O&M. This is because in rural areas, any form of payment is uncommon due to their perception that the government is responsible, and total dependence on the government.
However, in water scarce regions or considering the quality aspect in regard to safe water supply, households and communities now have started coming forward with their own initiatives for improvement of the status of water supply services by constructing and for managing the upkeep of the water supply arrangements established by the government and sometimes even bearing the establishment cost also, in part.
The felt need resulted from the situation analysis is that the role of Government needs to shift from service provider to that of a facilitator. Much of the ground-breaking work on community management of water supply has already started rolling in many areas, with due consideration to the importance of improved and safe water supply. Eventually, the Government will provide financial and policy support to the communities and community level institutions for achieving the desired levels of services on a sustainable manner.
Under the ongoing reform initiatives, the PHED, Assam, has made significant strides in recent years, initially in putting community level ownership on the agenda, and now moving increasingly towards community involvement for O&M initiatives. In its efforts to encourage the community (users) to actively participate in the O&M of rural water supply schemes, Users’ Committees are being formed under the guidance of PHED, Assam, for each rural Piped Water Supply Schemes (PWSS) with the representative participations of the users from the areas covered by the PWSS. The major role of such Users’ Committee is to ensure effective management of the PWSS including its regular O&M, creating social responsibilities in the form of ownership, regular supply of water and also the liaison with the PHED in case of requirement of any technical inputs.
Such an endeavour has succeeded in shifting the responsibility and the ownership of the rural PWSS to the community (users / beneficiaries) in a result oriented manner. Active participation of the Water Users Committees has resulted social accountability among all and the proactive role of the community has eventually ensured the smooth functioning of the PWSS, with people’s participation. Further, cost recovery for operations and maintenance and replacement costs, in part or full, has also led to the financial viability and sustainability of the schemes.
To boost such efforts, the Government of Assam has introduced last year, two awards for the successful Users’ Committees of water supply schemes, namely “Uttam Gramya Pani Jogan Parichalana Puraskar (UGPJPP)” and “Gramya Jalamitra Puraskar (GJMP)”. Accordingly, from different districts of Assam, 10 Users’ Committees are awarded with UGPJPP and three Users Committees are awarded with GJMP in a ceremony presided over by the Chief Minister of Assam. This demonstrates the state’s high level commitment to the scheme.
Such awards have again renewed the commitments of the Users’ Committees to bear the social responsibilities with the true spirit of cooperation and involvement. However, the impact of these social movement on rural drinking water supply are yet to be documented for showcasing the achievements, which may set examples to be followed by other communities in future.
Another important issue is the affiliation of the Users Committees to the PRIs. The PRIs are yet to take this responsibility to form such Users Committees and also for monitoring the sustainability in this regard, due to their involvement in other decentralized programmes under Panchayati raj system.
However, there are some inherent demerits also as follows:
Finally, the impact of these social movements on rural drinking water supply has already become transparent through Social Accountability, which refers to the users' point of view - addressing demands / sustainability of supply and its water sources.
Johnson Rhenius Jeyaseelan, WaterAid, Lucknow
WaterAid India Regional Office North and Gramonnati Sansthan in Mahoba has been working on reduction of lag time of water sources in Mahoba district of Uttar Pradesh. The Bundelkhand region faces a severe problem of water scarcity and the lag time in repair is sometimes more than a month. To tackle this problem a model project has been implemented. We have established four technical centres in all the four blocks which offer O&M and repair services of water and sanitation. Any complaint of breakdown is attended to in 24 hours and we have a women’s mechanic team.
The centre runs on a business model so that it can be self-sustained. The centre charges for all major and minor repairs and has trained mechanics, all type of tools, spares and also has sanitation materials in addition to water quality test kits for water quality testing. The centre has been successful in reducing the time for major repair to less than 24 hours and there has been no report of breakdown of the repaired water source again.
The centre also does mini water supply line O&M and liaises with panchayats so that more complaints come to them. The mechanics have safety equipment, and carry a global positioning system and a camera to document every repair. The centre has helped to increase their skills, provide them job opportunities thereby their income and is expected to be self-sustaining from this year.
The following table shows the impact of the centre:
Particulars |
Situation in April 2010 |
Situation in March 2011 |
Panchayats |
11 |
11 |
Total number of installed handpumps |
320 |
320 |
Average number of handpump per village Panchayat |
29 |
29 |
Breakdown reported during last 3 months from the month of assessment |
142 |
78 |
Repaired out of the total breakdown |
100 |
73 |
Breakdown percentage |
44 percent in 3 months |
24 percent in 3 months |
Percentage repaired out of breakdown |
70 % |
94 % |
Average un-repaired of the total installed |
13% |
2% |
Average time of response for repairing / attending the breakdown source | ||
1 day |
No |
06 Panchayats |
2 day |
02 Panchayats |
04 Panchayats |
1 week |
04 Panchayats |
01 Panchayats |
2 week |
03 Panchayats |
No |
More than 2 weeks |
02 Panchayats |
No |
A short report (ftp://ftp.solutionexchange.net.in/public/wes/cr/res-29071102.doc) and presentation (ftp://ftp.solutionexchange.net.in/public/wes/cr/res-29071101.ppt) are attached. For more feedback and queries do contact me and also for more details.
Sonali Patnaik, Arupa Mission Research Foundation, Bhubaneswar
I would like to share with you a bit of my experience with regard to WASH and other water sectors such as minor irrigation systems (tanks also used for washing/ bathing purpose) in Orissa's context. I hope it will be useful:
An example where O&M issues been addressed, reducing the downtime of safe water sources, while also limiting the pollution of the groundwater in a sustainable way?
In Orissa source water for bathing/washing is not limited to tube wells and bore wells but also minor irrigation systems which have catchments/tanks. Often, water from these tanks systems is directly used by households for daily activities as well as farming and other livelihood purposes. The tank system does get affected over a period of time and there is a need for regular O&M. Often there is a lack of ownership and unwillingness to pay user fees by people. To address this issue, the Orissa Community Tank Management Project of the Department of Water Resources developed a system wherein the Pani Panchayats (Water User Associations) would be partly made responsible for the O&M. It was made mandatory for the Pani Panchayat to sign an agreement saying they were willing to participate in the project and share the responsibility for its O&M, pay a small part of the cost in terms of labour, cash or kind. It was also mandatory for them to open an O&M account, collect user fees and save it for use during the post project phase. It was only after such an agreement was made that a project was initiated. As a result, the community felt that since they had contributed, they had the responsibility of ensuring that their contribution did not go to waste. Around 300 tanks are in the process of being rehabilitated in this manner.
With regard to skills in O&M, certain members of the Pani Panchayat were trained to do so as per guidelines. This was monitored by the executive engineers of the concerned districts along with the members of the Pani Panchayat and the community (Participatory Monitoring). Social Audits were also done.
The impact of renovating and rehabilitating the system was based on a pre-assessment (environmental and hydrological). Any negative impacts of renovation/rehabilitation or future usage were scientifically assessed as well as identified through discussions with the community based on which O&M plans were designed. This included pollution of groundwater and other likely risks. Grievance redressal mechanisms were put in place. Risks were identified, and addressing such risks was built into the programme.
What are the drivers for this improved O&M?
What accountability mechanisms have been found to be effective?
Have these been documented, or do they need to be documented? I request members to share existing documents.
The documents for the Project Implementation Plan and the Pani Panchayat Manual are large files. In case you feel the information I have shared is useful please email me and I will mail them across some parts of it.
I just evaluated a project in West Bengal in connection with strengthening of Panchayats in West Bengal. The panchayats there were very active in creating awareness on WASH through wall paintings. In some interior pockets of Purulia district (which also has a tribal population), a lady Sarpanch proudly showed me the toilets that were constructed across a village in every household. I visited her house and asked to see the toilet. She first hesitated. The hesitation was because the toilet was waterlogged. She said she could not even let her children use it because a) there was regular water logging b) the shed was made of tin/aluminum sheets with sharp edges which were unsafe for her children. So the family still defecated in the open, and it was not just her household but everyone who had these toilets continued the practice. There was a lack of sufficient support from the WASH team on the technical aspect of the toilet (the construction material), lack of gender and child sensitivity, lack of post construction walkthroughs and discussion so as to understand what the problems were and why people continued to not use the toilets. A target based approach by the WASH team without any supporting mechanism defeated the good intentions. Panchayats generally do not have people who are technically oriented; the Panchayats themselves require some capacity building and training. There is certainly a need to have in place a post construction O&M strategy, which is either missing or not communicated to the community/PRIs properly.
Dinesh Kumar, Institute for Resource Analysis and Policy, Hyderabad
I am only aware that Self Employed Women’s Association (SEWA) has been doing a good amount of work in the area of maintenance of rural water supply schemes, particularly decentralized water supply schemes such as hand pump and tube well based village schemes. Here, the village women volunteers, who are members of SEWA, were trained to take care of the maintenance of the systems, including repair and replacement of small mechanical components, and to liaison with the office bearers of local Panchayats and district wing of GWSSB to arrange for higher level repair and maintenance, whenever needed. They also had some experience in the Santalpur regional water supply scheme, which covered hundreds of villages, in managing water supply at the village level through Pani samitis (Dutch funded project). The best person to contact is Ms. Reema Nanavati of SEWA.
As regards drivers, the community action for managing water supply sources seem to be working in areas where they are alternative source of water for domestic supply in hostile environment like the one I mentioned. The fact of the matter is that whenever the village (public) water supply sources run dry, communities start depending on farm wells, and village ponds to meet their needs.
As regards groundwater pollution prevention, there is no experience from this part of the world in mobilizing social action for protecting groundwater quality. I also do not think, this has happened anywhere with community initiatives, without any institutional and policy interventions such as enforcement of pollution tax, and monetary incentive for reducing area under crop production and disposal of animal waste (as tried in some European countries) on soil.
Another source of rich information could be WASMO in Gujarat.
Anandi Mehra, Deutsche Gesellschaft für Internationale Zusammenarbeit (GIZ), Himachal Pradesh
There is a Guidance Book on Social Accountability in Rural Water Supply of Himachal Pradesh. Please visit http://issuu.com/aanandiimehra/docs/saminrws for the same. The book documents a case study on pilot testing of social accountability in rural water supply in selected panchayats, of two blocks in the State of Himachal Pradesh that was carried out under Indo German Bilateral Project "Capacity Building of Panchayati Raj Institutions in Himachal Pradesh" in collaboration with the Irrigation and Public Health Department (IPH). This Guidance Book in English highlights the process and involvement of key stakeholders (gram panchayats, IPH department and community) in ensuring accountability, transparency and participation of all the stakeholders and presenting the Action plan /Action taken report in the gram sabha.
I would request you to contact Mr. Farhad Vania (email - farhad.vania@giz.de) to send you the guidance books on community managed water supply. A WASH documentary in Hindi as well as English is also available at GIZ Delhi office; they could be contacted for the same.
Mamta Borgoyary, FXB India Suraksha, Noida
I am happy to share with you our experience in this field. In particular, I would like to share with you our experience of our project on WASH in four tribal areas of Jharkhand. As part of the project, we have successfully worked with the local youth and through the youth clubs to maintain the water sources and to mobilise local participation in all construction activities such as soak pits, garbage pits, etc. We are working with the local youth who are our agents of change. We have group of youths who have been provided technical training on hand pump repair and maintenance and they are successfully managing the maintenance of the water sources. Building accountability through participation in planning and execution has been one of the main achievements of our intervention. Very briefly our progress so far is:
Our organisation FXB India Suraksha is working on water and hygiene in different parts of the country (Andhra Pradesh, Jharkhand, Pondicherry, Tamil Nadu, and Mizoram). These are small pilot projects where we are implementing different strategies to meet our goal. We find in almost all the pilots, engaging the youth in a meaningful way has ensured that the issues of ownership, accountability and maintenance are tackled successfully.
We will be very happy if you would like to visit our site in Jharkhand. Kindly let me know. In addition I will be happy to share with you more in case you need additional information. Please find a brochure of our work on water and sanitation at ftp://ftp.solutionexchange.net.in/public/wes/cr/res-29071101.pdf(PDF; Size: 3.12MB). For more information on our work please visit our website: www.fxbsuraksha.in
Annie George, Building and Enabling Disaster Resilience of Coastal Communities (BEDROC), Nagapattinam
I am Annie George from an NGO called Building and Enabling Disaster Resilience of Coastal Communities (BEDROC) in Nagapattinam. I have had the opportunity to work for a World Bank funded "Rural Water Supply and Sanitation Project" in Kerala called the Jalanidhi Project from 2000-2004. This project was quite successful in running community based water and sanitation schemes where the communities, through village level "Beneficiary Groups" (BGs) successfully planned, designed, implemented and managed the O&M of the project.
The whole project cycle was for 24 months - 4 months for pre-planning, 8 months for planning, 8 months for implementation and 4 months for post-implementation support. So, considerable time was dedicated to social mobilisation and the creation of local leadership. This helped in strengthening the group dynamics and creating a shared agenda.
The BG once formed, signed a tri-partite agreement with the Kerala Rural Water Supply and Sanitation Agency and the Grama Panchayat (GP). One of the most crucial aspects was the financial contribution by the BG members worked at 10 per cent of the total estimated capital cost. The GP had to pay 15 per cent. This co-ownership also brought in aspects of co-management which ensured that the scheme was managed by the local stakeholders rather than external NGOs.
Interested community members/youth were trained in O&M aspects and were on call for repairs. As this was a paid service, it also ensured employment opportunities. As all the construction/hardware materials were sourced locally by the BG members themselves during the implementation period, availability of replacements was never an issue. The BG members were already aware of the availability and the rates.
There were a series of trainings held for the members, right from book-keeping to monitoring, leadership development, etc. Women were encouraged to participate and special care was taken to ensure that one of the three key positions in the BG was always held by a woman. Apart from this, there were special women empowerment programmes woven into the project components, which supported the women in developing small businesses on their own with project loans/funding.
Rain water harvesting was popularised as a means of replenishing the wells/bore wells as well as for using as drinking water.
The Project Implementation Plan, the Bye-laws, various MIS reports (both progress and process oriented) on the project would be available with the Jalanidhi office in Trivandrum and also their website jalanidhi.org. They would also welcome site visits. Hope this will be useful for you in formulating your plans.
Anita Miya, Aga Khan Planning and Building Service India, Mumbai
Our understanding is that poor O&M system is due to:
Please find our response to the issues raised by Brecht Mommen
Are their examples where O&M issues been addressed, reducing the downtime of safe water sources, while also limiting the pollution of the groundwater in a sustainable way?
We have implemented the Gujarat Environment Health Improvement Programme (GEHIP 2002-2005) comprising multiple water and sanitation construction activities. To date, the village panchayats are maintaining created assets under the programme, thereby indicating establishment of sustainable O&M mechanisms. From the inception of the programme, we made conscious efforts to internalise and develop a plan for O&M along with planned activities. Our approach focused on:
What are the drivers for this improved O&M?
What accountability mechanisms have been found to be effective?
A well defined responsibility plan was developed, refer to page number 2 of the document that is available at ftp://ftp.solutionexchange.net.in/public/wes/cr/res-29071102.pdf (PDF; Size: 100 KB)
Have these been documented, or do they need to be documented? I request members to share existing documents.
You can see our documents, one mentioned above, and another available at ftp://ftp.solutionexchange.net.in/public/wes/cr/res-29071103.pdf (PDF; Size: 16KB) for the entire planning process which helped us in facilitating and institutionalizing O&M at village levels.
Vibhu Nayar, Tamil Nadu - Irrigated Agriculture Modernisation and Water-bodies Restoration and Management (TN-IAMWARM) Project, Chennai
I am sharing my paper authored with A.J. James published in International Journal of Water Resources Development, Volume 26 Issue 3, September 2010 as “Policy Insights on User Charges from a Rural Water Supply Project: A Counter-intuitive View from South India”. It is based on a “Randomized trial of impact of user charges on O&M Behavior of 105 panchayats in Tamil Nadu where treatment was controlled for user charges (the study was designed in collaboration with MIT Cambridge). The abstract states, “When government engineers work closely with rural communities to raise awareness of water as a scarce resource, greater community ownership results and water supply service delivery and user charge collections improve. This runs counter to the conventional hypothesis that (higher) user charges lead to more finances and hence, improved service delivery. More sustainable service delivery results when engineers adopt a non-prescriptive and flexible approach and work with communities—rather than impose targets of 100% collection of operation and maintenance costs from the outset, as is done widely. The key is attitudinal change, driven in this case by democratization of governance undertaken along with engineers in the south Indian state of Tamil Nadu.”
In conclusion, the paper states: Village panchayats were randomly divided into three equal groups and assigned a revenue generation target based on the proportion of operation and maintenance costs to be covered to test the conventional wisdom that (higher) user charges lead to conservation of resources, greater accountability, efficiency of service delivery, hence better collection, and consequently a greater proportion of operation and maintenance expenditure recovered by collection, and overall greater user satisfaction. The findings of the study, however, show that the fixing of higher user charge based on revenue targets has not induced either greater collection of user charges or greater declines of operation and maintenance costs. Clearly, there are some other factors at work.
The alternative view is that when the community understands the importance of water as a resource, there is greater participation in conservation and management and consequently greater responsibility and ownership over the drinking water supply system and decisions concerning the use of water as a scarce resource requiring conservation. As a consequence, performance and service delivery improves. This turns the conventional hypothesis on its head; a greater community desire for more effective resource conservation and cost effective service delivery may also lead to the imposition (or increase) of tariffs. There are three key policy implications of the study findings: (1) structural measures of community participation (such as imposition of user charges, forming village water Policy Insights on User Charges from a Rural Water supply Project committees, and handing over responsibility to communities) do not work on their own, and need to be actively supplemented by ‘non-structural’ measures such as democratizing governance, changing attitudes in order to build community ownership, and responsibility for water service delivery; (2) the best way to improve management and conservation is not to approach it as a financial problem requiring user charges, but as a water resource scarcity problem that requires community awareness, understanding and hence involvement for its resolution—which will prosper only in an environment in which service providers willingly share power and partner with the community in a new governance paradigm; and (3) a non-prescriptive or non-target-driven approach emphasizing raising awareness of the importance of managing water as a common resource, and on providing sufficient space for community action and decision making, are key ingredients to evolving successful and sustainable community-managed water supply systems.
These approaches can be replicated and used to reform policy. However, the success of the approach depends critically on a change management process that addresses institutional and attitudinal factors inhibiting change. The findings of the study, however, should hopefully stimulate fresh thinking on learning from, discussing about and contextualizing similar approaches amongst policymakers across the developing world.
You can download the full paper on the website of International Journal of Water Resources Development, at http://tandfprod.literatumonline.com/doi/pdf/10.1080/07900627.2010.491973 (PDF, 155 KB)
Brecht Mommen, United Nations Children’s Fund (UNICEF), Bhubaneswar (response 1)
Thanks to all of those who have responded to my query. It is very interesting to hear from others about this topic and gives food for thought and debate. I would like to seize this opportunity to dig a layer deeper into my query:
I am very much looking forward to hear more from the Water Community!
Dipak Roy, Individual Consultant, New Delhi
O&M of water supply systems in Orissa had been addressed specifically in the Danish International Development Agency (DANIDA) supported Orissa Drinking Water Project (1983-1994), and this led to a large pilot titled "2-Tier maintenance system", mainly of handpumps in 3 coastal districts (undivided Cuttack, Puri and Balasore). The system was based on identification, training and nurturing of teams of Self-Employed Mechanics (SEM), who typically looked after 25-30 handpumps. Each SEM received a fee of Rs. 150 per pump per year and was provided with a bicycle and tools. The system was monitored rigorously and also documented very well. (See "Water and Sanitation Sector assessment" in Orissa: Final report by Scott Wilson Consultants, 2005, for a good summary of the project and of the sector in general).
After the closure of the DANIDA project, the "2-tier system" was extended by RWSSO, Orissa with UNICEF's support between 1996 and early 2000's. There is some documentation done by UNICEF from 2005-2007. (Please check with Lopamudra Tripathy, UNICEF, Bhubaneswar for details)
Pipe water supply systems covering a number of villages have been installed and maintained well by a major NGO Gram Vikas in southern Orissa. This is a model worth looking into simply because it is seen to be working well. In the Gram Vikas projects cost-sharing by users, both capital costs and partial recovery of O&M, is a precondition for project design. The model has also been reviewed by the Government of Orissa (GOO) and the Government of India (GOI) and acknowledged as a good practice. (Please contact Joe Madiath, Director, Gram Vikas, Mohuda, Ganjam, Orissa for details)
In Decemebr 2011, WaterAid, Bhubaneswar office supported a study which looked at the capacities of Village institutions - Village Water and Sanitation Committees vis-à-vis Village Health Committees {or Gaon Kalyan Samiti (GKS) of the National Rural Health Mission (NHRM)}and the larger issue of the role of gram panchayats in O&M of water supply systems. The background to the study was a proposal within GOO to combine the functions of Village Water and SanitationCommittee (VWSC) and GKS, as per the recommendations in the 2010 DDWS (GOI) guidelines. The study was based on detailed qualitative and quantitative studies carried out in 40 gram panchayats in 4 representative districts and has been shared with the Chief Engineer, Rural Water Supply and Sanitation (RWSS) Orissa.
A major pipe water supply system with a good history of O&M and with all the building blocks of a community-managed project is the "Aapni Yojana" in Western Rajasthan in which 370 villages in 3 desert districts have been provided with 24X7 pipe water from public stand posts and with assured water quality. This project has also been extensively documented by the KfW Entwicklungsbank and the Institute of Health Management Research (IHMR), Jaipur. Goutam Sadhu, currently faculty member of IHMR (mobile number: 08107777867) is a good source of institutional memory for this project.
UNICEF has several historical experiments with community-led O&M systems, Women Handpump Mechanics in Jharkhand (East Singhbhum) and Uttar Pradesh (Banda), community-based handpump maintenance and water quality monitoring system in West Bengal (East Medinipur), and so on (documents on these could be available in UNICEF, Delhi office).
I am afraid the above looks more like an inventory of projects, but more detailed information is available on these areas.
Hemant Khosla, United Nations Children’s Fund (UNICEF), New Delhi
In response to this discussion, I would like to present my experiences in the WASH sector in Gujarat. I have attempted to reply to your query point-by-point and am also enclosing a few documents for your kind reference.
O&M of rural water supply schemes in Gujarat
In Gujarat, 80% of the water supply schemes are based on ground water based sources of which, major chunk of the schemes (85-80%) are Regional Water Supply Schemes (RWSS), while 15-20% schemes are Individual Water Supply Schemes. The RWSS is implemented, commissioned, operated and managed by the Government agency (the Gujarat Water Supply & Sewerage Board - GWSSB) as these schemes cater to group of villages which in some cases is as large as 30-40 villages. Designing, implementation, operation and maintenance, and the cost of implementation of the projects run into crores. Considering the fact that the designing, implementation and O&M of the schemes is a highly technical task, the onus of the same lies on the GWSSB. The implementation and O&M of the schemes is being handled by the GWSSB by hiring out third party vendors/ contractors.
In case of the Individual Water Supply Schemes (IWSS), the responsibility of the O&M rests with the Village (Gram) Panchayats. The Gram Panchayats employ operators and mechanics on wage basis for the routine checks and periodic repair and maintenance of the water supply schemes. The funds for the same are being utilised from the various taxes which the Panchayats collect annually. Moreover, in many villages where the IWSS is in operation since decades, there is a tariff mechanism in place for meeting the costs for regular O&M while major costs for instance the replacement of pipelines/ pumps, etc., is being met from funds available with the Gram Panchayats. Besides, in case of the in-village water supply systems catering to all households developed under the centrally sponsored Swajaldhara programme or the State Government sponsored Sector Reform State (SRS) programme, the onus of the entire O&M of the systems lies with the Gram Panchayats or the Village Water & Sanitation Committees (VWSCs). There are many instances of successful community involvement and ownership of the drinking water supply spread across all districts of Gujarat - the instances/ case studies list is exhaustive and ever increasing.
Examples of successful O&M:
The Government of Gujarat has institutionalised the reforms in water supply sector way back since the year 2002. Facilitating the process of decentralisation and aligning it with the 73rd Constitutional amendment (Panchayati Raj Act), the Gujarat Government issued Government Resolution for constitution of a Village Water & Sanitation Committee (VWSC) or Pani samiti (as termed in the State), which is a sub-committee of the Village (Gram) Panchayat and would be responsible to plan, design, implement and operate the in-village water supply systems. The Water and Sanitation Management Organisation (WASMO) was created as a Special Purpose Vehicle (in the year2003) under the Water Supply Department primarily for taking forward the reform principles by enabling and empowering the village level institutions (GPs and VWSCs) to by day-to-day hand-holding, technical guidance and ensuring sufficient financial resources for the implementation of the water supply schemes. Scaling up from around 82 villages in the Ghogha region, Bhavnagar district in the year 2003 WASMO has successfully scaled up the decentralised community managed drinking water supply programme across all 26 districts of the State (more than 11,000 villages covered), of which more than 6,500 villages have completed the implementation of the in-village water supply systems and more than 3,000 villages have institutionalised the systems of O&M of the schemes by setting up a meticulous tariff system to successfully manage the systems and a document was published in the year 2006 showcasing the O&M by the community [Users as Managers.pdf]. Although this document was published in the year 2006, it needs considerable updating as the O&M systems in villages have been scaled up considerably since then.
For addressing the issue of downtime of safe water sources, a multi-pronged approach has been adopted by the State, which is as follows:
The GP/VWSC employs operators/ mechanics for regular monitoring of the systems, their operation and periodical upkeep and maintenance. These operators/ mechanics have been duly trained by various agencies viz. Government & NGOs for carrying out the O&M of the rural water supply schemes. They are paid monthly honorarium which in turn is being met from the user charges (tariff) collected by the Gram Panchayat/ VWSC; as the case may be.
The Government has adopted a long term approach of multiple drinking water sources in the village, which include piped supply as well as water supply from local sources (which are developed under different programmes). In cases where there is disruption of water supply from one source, the alternate source caters to the need of the community. Moreover, in most of the cases where the villages have a dual water supply, the community uses the sources for differential usage, for instance piped supply for drinking purposes and water from the local source for ablution, cattle and other domestic needs.
Considering the fact that the State faces droughts, rendering the water sources non-functional for some months, water resource management initiatives have also been taken up in many cases, which include artificial recharge, revival of traditional bodies, catchment protection (for diversion of excess runoff water to the sources). Moreover, especially in tribal areas where a large number of hand pumps have been installed, the Government agencies take up capacity building of the local youth for taking up repair of hand pumps. Annually, part of the funds allocated for O&M of water supply is also being transferred to Gram Panchayats for meeting the financial requirements for hand pump repairs.
Addressing ground water contamination is a complex issue as it is affected by externalities, namely geogenic contamination as well as contamination due to human activities. Efforts are underway to address the issue of groundwater contamination. To address quality problems by geogenic contaminations like Fluoride, the State has adopted a long term strategy of shifting to safe sources, of which the Narmada based drinking water supply grid is one option which the State is implementing and has been quite successful. Moreover, water resource management initiatives like artificial recharge, protection of catchment area (by social fencing, norms set up by village level institutions) are also adopted in many cases to bring down the level of contamination. For addressing the issue of salinity, which is widespread in Gujarat, apart from recharge measures, the installation of community-managed Reverse Osmosis (RO) plants have been taken up in few villages.
Drivers for improved O&M:
For addressing the issue of sustained and safe drinking water supply, it is imperative that all the above mentioned drivers of O&M be given equal importance.
Effective accountability measures:
To ensure that service providers are accountable to their customers and vice versa, the following things have to be considered:
WASMO has published various theme based and process oriented documents for wider dissemination. Moreover, the bi-monthly newsletter Loksamvaad, highlights the successful endeavours of the community in the local language, which is delivered to all villages regularly and also has a good readership among rural schools and urban areas.
Reference material:
Users as Managers. ftp://ftp.solutionexchange.net.in/public/wes/cr/res-29071105.pdf, PDF, 4 Mb
Operation & Maintenance - section from the publication - 5 years of decentralised drinking water supply systems in Gujarat. ftp://ftp.solutionexchange.net.in/public/wes/cr/res-29071108.pdf, PDF, 201 Kb
Social processes for community participation - section from the publication - 5 years of decentralised drinking water supply systems in Gujarat. ftp://ftp.solutionexchange.net.in/public/wes/cr/res-29071104.pdf, PDF, 259 Kb
Women empowerment - section from the publication - 5 years of decentralised drinking water supply systems in Gujarat. ftp://ftp.solutionexchange.net.in/public/wes/cr/res-29071106.pdf PDF, 345 Kb
Publications and case studies of successful endeavours in the field of drinking water supply in Gujarat have been uploaded by the Ministry of drinking water & Sanitation, Government of India (Please refer the link: http://ddws.gov.in/CaseStudies.htm)
For direct contact:
Chief Executive Officer/Project Director
WASMO
3rd floor, Jal Sewa Bhawan
Opp. Air force headquarters
Sec. 10-A, Gandhinagar (Gujarat) 380 012
Ph. No.: (079) 23247170/1
Fascimile: (079) 23247485
E-mail: wasmo@wasmo.org, swajaldhara.wasmo@gmail.com
Website: www.wasmo.org
If you may need any other clarification/ further information, I would be obliged to help you.
Stephanie Tam, Northwestern University, USA
My research focuses on urban sanitation in Ahmedabad, but I’ve been dealing with issues of accountability in sewer O&M that may be of some interest to the query. My paper on the problems with “self-help” sewerage O&M in slums and in the city can be downloaded here.
I cannot offer solutions, but I do offer some caution against privatized, self-help sanitation schemes.
Poor government maintenance of Ahmedabad’s sewers has led to loss of confidence in public O&M so that autonomous action is regularly taken by individuals to maintain sewer lines themselves by hotwiring sewer and storm water lines. While this in some way empowers residents and ensures that things “get done”, it ultimately compromises the entire sewer system because autonomous changes are not done with full knowledge or understanding of the system and often contradicts ongoing sewer projects performed by government consultants. Sewage chokes up the storm water drainage, leading to water logging throughout Ahmedabad every monsoon season.
The same kind of “self-help” ethos is endorsed in slums where users are thought to be empowered if they build and maintain their own sewer lines and toilets (see Ahmedabad’s Parivartan/Slum Networking Project and the 500 NOC scheme). It is coupled with the idea that slum dwellers will be educated about their civic responsibilities if they have to face the consequences of misusing their toilets and sewers. However, slum homeowners are outsourcing gully trap maintenance and toilet-building, presumably to manual scavengers and slum masons. Confining sanitation to the private sector in slums is leading to exploitation of the poorest of the poor (see Rod Burgess’s criticism of John Turner’s self-help housing).
Whatever O&M is done by the government is likewise outsourced to manual scavengers. Even though manual sewer maintenance is nationally banned and there is a Gujarat High Court Order injunction against it, the decentralized administrative structure of the maintenance board ensures that manual maintenance continues to occur with impunity. By subcontracting O&M work to private contractors, zonal boards acquit themselves of accountability for the exploitation of manual manhole workers (see KSSM and Navsarjan).
Casteism is deeply embedded in sanitation O&M in Gujarat. In self-help schemes, public regulation gives way to private exploitation and there is no means of ensuring accountability. In the paper, I mention two organizations (NASA and ESI) that attempt to provide alternative sanitation scenarios that will be more humane for manual scavengers or break the link between caste and sewer O&M. ESI (the Environmental Sanitation Institute) in particular works on rural sanitation and hygiene, and would be a good resource for further information. Duncan Mara has been campaigning for redesigning sewers (simplified sewerage), which is cheaper, reduces maintenance needs and also makes maintenance easy and humane.
Jyotiraj Patra, Centre for the Environment and Public Policy, Bhubaneswar
Deltares in association with Gram Vikas in Odisha is implementing the “Strengthening the impact of bare foot hydrologists (BFH) in rural water supply and sanitation" project, which is funded by the Netherlands government. These trained BFHs could help in strengthening the overall institutional framework of O&M at the community level. This could also contribute to community ownership through informed engagement. The details of this project is available at http://public.deltares.nl/display/BFH/Home
Joe Madiath, Gram Vikas, Orissa
We at Gram Vikas have been quite successful in motivating quite a few villages in Orissa (943 so far) to build their water supply systems, which are entirely owned, managed and maintained by the people themselves. More than water supply in these villages 100 per cent of the families has built for themselves a toilet and bathing room each for every family without even a single exception. 100 per cent of the families use toilets. I do not see toilets being used unless water is available in the toilet or in close proximity. We do have some issues with less than 5 per cent of the villages.
Until the end of March 2011, Gram Vikas has worked with villagers from 943 villages with over 55,000 families and over 299,000 people in the field of water and sanitation. In these village communities have done the following:
Ramakrishna Nallathiga, Centre For Good Governance, Hyderabad
It is interesting to know about the strengthening of rural water supply system through improved O&M, for which the examples of participatory water supply management in Gujarat (Aga Khan Foundation) serve as a good example. Madhya Pradesh has also witnessed a similar experience in some parts of the State with UNICEF intervention.
Andhra Pradesh has experimented to an extent in the towns/ cities of AP under erstwhile APUSP of DFID. Under this programme, the communities prepared O&M Plans and executed some of the works through community contracting. The O&M Plan would involve participation of community, which renders it more community oriented, and its execution with community, that reinforces the accountability of implementation.
The whole process of O&M planning of water supply interventions in APUSP towns has been brought out under the lesson learning document prepared by me at CGG (as a lesson). A copy of the same can be found at the following link.
http://www.cgg.gov.in/dfid/08050158_CG_BK01_120p.pdf
Sireesha Patnaik, Friends of Women World Banking (FWWB), Ahmedabad
While going through your query and issues stated in it, which covers problems faced at community level for O&M, we would like to share a small experience with you.
FWWB works with micro-finance NGOs who have promoted self-help groups and community based organisations and empowered them to approach banks and government. In one of the cases, our partners’ used a public governance model where the community elects a representative from among themselves, who lists the issues and addresses them by approaching officials from the municipality. Hence, awareness to a certain problem can only be resolved once the community is aware of it, and an elected representative would ensure community participation by entrusting responsibility to individuals.
In another example, we had an opportunity to visit a village in Gandhi Nagar (Gujarat) which won Nirmal Gram Puraskar. The village had a separate water distribution system, a reverse osmosis plant and a water head tank. They had also planned for rainwater harvesting and solid waste management. WASMO is actively involved in the programme. If required, we can try and link you with few people.
If providing them facilities and making panchayat responsible for it is not working, and then someone has to find out why. The government should ensure public participation for implementation of any scheme. Any project which involves government schemes for the public requires a lot of effort in the beginning, few critical points to be looked at are:
It would be ideal if the youth of the village are mobilized and involve in the programmes. To encourage villagers, the government can announce a special prize for the villages that are best kept and maintained like the Nirmal Gram Puraskar. Thus, a holistic approach is necessary to address the requirements of the community/village. Probably these inputs are very generic, but they can become a strong base for programme.
Surendra Kumar Yadav, Vikram University, Ujjain
I agree with the inputs of Stephanie Tam. Another important factor that I have personally noticed in some villages is that the distance between latrines and hand pumps are not adequate. Often it is less than 10 metres. So improving O&M and thereby the availability and quality of drinking water in rural settings is really a challenging job and IEC may be given stress for local rural community in this regard.
Anil Gupta, Independent Consultant, New Delhi
There is a solution which I suggested to some US-based NGOs trying to find solutions for villages in Africa. This has already been adopted with collaboration of Water One.
The cost of such water could be less than 80 paise per litre and it shall pay for itself by decrease in occurrence of water borne diseases and expected expenses towards health care as a result.
R K Srinivasan, Plan International, New Delhi
Plan India is working in rural areas of Orissa and provision of safe drinking water is a major issue. Since most of the water sources are groundwater dependent, it is extracted through hand pumps and borewells. The quantity of water from these groundwater sources dwindles in summer season. Most part of area where we are working with community falls in hard rock terrain with thick laterite cover. The laterite prevents the natural percolation of ground water. So to ensure a continuous water supply, in the absence of natural recharge, the focus should be on artificial recharge of groundwater.
Also another major issue is the presence of high level of iron in the water. This not only affects water taste, but also causes problem in washing cloths and in the cooking also, apart from health issue which arises as a result of consuming contaminated water.
Hence in order to improve rural water supply schemes it should be combined effort of groundwater augmentation through rainwater harvesting and diluting iron rich groundwater using rainwater. Also promotion of household level iron removal plants should be promoted
Krupa Dholakia, Sahjeevan, Kutch
We are working in the Kutch district of Gujarat. We have an example of drinking water schemes run by panchayat pani samitis. Their O&M is very effective even though most are individual water supply schemes. The Gujarat Water Supply and Sewerage Board and WASMO and also we have one programme with WASMO-PANI THIYE PANJO. We are all promoting local sources such as wells or borewells. This document (ftp://ftp.solutionexchange.net.in/public/wes/cr/res-29071109.doc) gives more details.
Rajesh Shah, Peer Water Exchange, Bangalore
The Peer Water Exchange (PWX) was created to address this very problem:
By creating one central exchange that can hold all the projects of all the different agencies, we can create a picture of what actions are happening in the field. This will help connect folks working on sanitation, water, watershed, purification, etc. There are many instances where different agencies do not know who else has worked in the area and what have they done. There are also instances of different projects by different players in the same place.
By allowing any person to report on any project, the input from the field can be tremendously increased. For example, if any person passes near a project already existing on PWX (currently almost a 1000 villages in India) then they can stop for a bit, take a photo, interview someone, note general observations, etc. And report. Even via SMS.
Using PWX AnalytiX one can search for projects that have not been visited, been visited by the implementer, or by a 3rd party. Soon to come, will be the ability to search for projects visited in the past 6 months, or visited within certain time after completion. We can easily include SMS reports from the beneficiaries themselves. Each visitor report is tracked chronologically and attached to a master report for the project. Thus we can handle different O&M strategies, see which are working and which are not, and share and learn.
There are many more features that PWX addresses. The lack of collaboration that exists in the water is one. On PWX the members decide on the funding - so it is the first participatory decision-making system where field players can vote. So their input shapes projects from far. We just finished a funding round with 18 agencies peer reviewing each others applications and thus improving them. So people collaborate, not just peer review.
PWX is 100% transparent and thus fully documents every project - you can see whether the implementer has put in a final report or not. This transparency does cause many agencies to leave, but many who are happy to share all, including failures, stay and make it the water sector's vibrant exchange.
Thus we are finding the drivers (or lack of) for O&M:
Kalyan Paul, Pan Himalayan Grassroots Development Foundation, Ranikhet*
Over the last two decades, Grassroots has enabled over 500 villages across the hills of Uttarakhand and Himachal Pradesh to benefit from enhanced quantities of safe drinking water. This has been possible for the following reasons:
There are significant lessons from across the country and these are best understood
through field visits and workshops.
*Offline Contribution
Satish C. Raghu, Rural Environment & Community Health Awareness Society, Betul, Madhya Pradesh*
In UP, a few years back, community based handpump maintenance project was implemented by UP Jal Nigam in the district on Mahoba, Robertsganj and Allahabad supported by UNICEF. The main component of this program was setting up path finders at the village level mainly concerning the O&M of India Mark III and II handpumps. As the resource person, I conducted trainings in the pilot project area.
It was a good to know that Gramonnati Sansthan with the support of Water Aid is running a programme for the O&M of IM II & III handpumps. Going through the experiences in O&M and suggestions, there are few important points can be added for the "O" down time of handpumps which are often the only reliable source of drinking water at village level:
We are sure that by checking and monitoring of HP Lag TIME can be brought to 'O' in all the 11 panchayats of your project area.
*Offline Contribution
Ravi Nitesh, Mission Bhartiyam, Lucknow*
It is quite right to have these types of queries, which directly connect you to root level problems and then you become engaged in brain storming to find a better and optimized way to get the solution.
O&M itself is a field that needs continuous inspection with focused approach. It is a field requires quick decisions and a dynamic approach of the person tasked with the responsibility.
Water supply schemes in almost all cities are dependent on a supply grid. These grids have been laid in urban areas, while rural areas still have sources of alternate supply routes from natural sources.
Most of the water pipelines which have been laid require periodic inspection and maintenance, which is not done. This maintenance is required not only on the part of officials concerned, but also from consumers.
These pipelines sometimes get damaged through third party digging. Sometimes these grids get affected by internal/external corrosion. The design of these systems is poor and seldom is they designed with modern methods. They also do not take into future needs of a rapidly growing population.
Specifications, standards and laying procedure of these water supply pipelines should be well documented as per the terrains, and these procedures should get accredited with a central department.
The O&M personnel engaged in these pipelines should be trained periodically. They can also be brought together for regular experience sharing sessions. Those who do their work well should be rewarded.
*Offline Contribution
Brecht Mommen, United Nations Children’s Fund (UNICEF), Bhubaneswar (response 2)
I feel that some aspects need further discussion and exploration, as some elements have not been addressed fully. For example accountability - there are examples of audits around expenditures, but how about accountability around "water as a service" how do citizens hold their government accountable for that human right? It would be nice if I could somehow give that feedback to the sector and invite them for more debate.
Many thanks to all who contributed to this query!
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