Tapping deep: Rights, tech and India's water future

India’s dependence on groundwater is vast, supporting agriculture, urban needs, and rural water supplies. Over 62% of irrigated agriculture, 85% of rural water supply and 45% of urban consumption come from groundwater. Unregulated extraction, driven by population growth, urbanisation, and subsidised pumping, has led to rapidly declining water tables. Climate change exacerbates this crisis, intensifying irrigation demands.

The problem

India holds just 4% of the world’s freshwater but supports 16% of its population. Groundwater resources are unevenly distributed, with the Indo-Gangetic plains holding 60% of reserves. However, overexploitation has led to over 1,071 out of 6,607 groundwater assessment units being classified as “overexploited.” States like Punjab, Haryana, and Rajasthan extract groundwater at unsustainable rates exceeding 100% of recharge. Rapid industrialisation and agriculture have further strained resources. Declining water levels, worsening quality, and regional disparities complicate sustainable water management efforts.

Social and ecological impacts

Groundwater depletion has severe repercussions for both society and the environment. Socially, declining water tables diminish agricultural productivity, exacerbate poverty, and jeopardise food security. In Uttar Pradesh, a one-meter drop in groundwater levels translates to an 8% decline in grain production. Rural communities heavily dependent on agriculture bear the brunt of this impact, with poverty rates escalating by 11% in regions experiencing significant groundwater depletion. Moreover, dwindling access to safe drinking water has compelled many regions to reduce water supply coverage, impacting public health.

Current policy and practices

Efforts to manage groundwater depletion vary across states, often combining regulatory and community-driven approaches:

• Rainwater harvesting: Initiated in Delhi in 2001, rainwater harvesting mandates now exist in states like Tamil Nadu, Rajasthan, and Karnataka. These policies require rainwater harvesting structures on rooftops for buildings above certain sizes, helping to augment groundwater recharge. However, enforcement and community engagement remain inconsistent, limiting the impact of these measures in several areas.

• Community-led efforts: Gujarat’s decentralised water conservation model, particularly the Sardar Patel Participatory Water Conservation Project, has been highly effective. Farmers, supported by NGOs and the government, have constructed over 70,000 check dams. These efforts have not only replenished groundwater but also improved agricultural resilience in drought-prone areas like Saurashtra and Kachchh.

• Legislation and regulatory frameworks: Punjab and Haryana’s Preservation of Sub-Soil Water Acts regulate the timing of paddy cultivation to reduce water demand during peak summer months. Punjab has further promoted crop diversification, encouraging farmers to switch from water-intensive crops like rice to alternatives like maize and pulses. Such measures are complemented by subsidies for resource-efficient technologies like drip irrigation and zero tillage.

• Urban initiatives: Cities like Bengaluru have implemented rainwater harvesting bylaws and encouraged wastewater recycling to address acute water shortages. Despite these efforts, unregulated borewell drilling and overextraction persist, particularly in urban fringes. Municipalities often struggle to enforce groundwater management regulations effectively.

• Energy policy integration: The Jyotigram Scheme in Gujarat separates electricity feeders for agricultural and non-agricultural uses, enabling better control over groundwater pumping. This approach has reduced overextraction while ensuring equitable power supply in rural areas.

Global case studies

India can get valuable insights from successful groundwater management strategies implemented globally. In Mexico's San Luis Potosi Valley, treated wastewater is effectively utilised to replenish aquifers, thereby enhancing water availability for downstream communities. Chile's Santiago provides a model for urban water conservation, integrating advanced water metering with public awareness campaigns and the strategic use of treated wastewater for aquifer recharge.

Proposed solutions

Institutionalising groundwater rights: Current private ownership models lead to overextraction and inequities. Detaching groundwater rights from land ownership can empower marginalised communities. Such rights could ensure equitable access and create a formalised system of accountability for resource usage. Community-managed groundwater systems, supported by local governance structures, ensure sustainable practices. India’s Public Trust Doctrine can serve as a legal foundation for framing groundwater as a shared resource.

Artificial groundwater recharge: Artificial recharge projects, such as percolation tanks, recharge wells, and check dams, have shown promise in states like Gujarat and Tamil Nadu. These methods replenish aquifers, particularly in regions with high dependency on groundwater for irrigation. Expanding watershed management programs can complement recharge efforts by reducing soil erosion and promoting natural infiltration. Regular maintenance of recharge structures, such as de-silting tanks, is essential for long-term effectiveness.

Energy and water use policies: Subsidised electricity for pumping has encouraged unsustainable groundwater extraction. Policies like the Jyotigram Scheme can regulate pumping by improving the efficiency of power supply. Additionally, rationalising electricity subsidies and linking them to water-saving practices can incentivise conservation. Crop diversification initiatives must be scaled up, with financial incentives for farmers to adopt less water-intensive crops. This can reduce overall irrigation demand, particularly in water-stressed regions like Punjab and Haryana.

Technological innovations: Advanced monitoring systems, such as hydrogeological monitoring networks, provide real-time data on groundwater levels, quality, and usage. This data can inform local and state-level water management strategies. Precision irrigation technologies, such as drip and sprinkler systems, enable targeted water delivery, minimising wastage and reducing groundwater dependency. Mobile apps and IoT-based solutions can further optimise water use by providing farmers with localised irrigation schedules.

Way forward

Collaborative governance: Central and state governments must align policies, ensuring a cohesive national strategy for groundwater management. Initiatives like the Atal Bhujal Yojana provide a framework for participatory groundwater governance, emphasizing community involvement and decentralised decision-making. Local governments and panchayats should be empowered to implement groundwater management plans tailored to regional needs. Capacity-building programs can enhance their technical expertise and enforcement capabilities.

Community participation: Local communities must play a central role in managing groundwater resources. Public awareness campaigns can educate farmers and urban residents about the importance of conservation. Platforms for stakeholder engagement, such as Jal Panchayats, can foster collective decision-making. Training programs for para-hydrogeologists at the village level can strengthen grassroots monitoring and management efforts. Empowered communities are better positioned to enforce equitable water-sharing practices and prevent overextraction.

Integrated approaches: Groundwater management must integrate rights-based frameworks with technological interventions. Institutionalising community rights ensures equitable access, while innovations like artificial recharge and precision irrigation enhance resource sustainability. Research collaborations between academic institutions, policymakers, and local stakeholders can generate context-specific solutions. Examples from global case studies highlight the value of multidisciplinary approaches in addressing complex water challenges.

Policy and financial support: National and state governments should allocate dedicated funds for groundwater recharge projects, efficient irrigation technologies, and community-led initiatives. Public-private partnerships can mobilise additional resources and expertise. Tax incentives for industries adopting water-efficient practices and penalties for overextraction can promote sustainable use across sectors. A strong regulatory framework is essential to enforce compliance and deter exploitation.