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Water is fundamental to human life, health, and dignity. In India, safe drinking water is not only essential for public health but is also deeply intertwined with different aspects of human life. Clean water can reduce diarrhoeal disease, improve child survival, lessen healthcare burdens, and aid in community well-being.
Persistent gaps in India’s drinking water landscape
India, however, continues to grapple with overlapping challenges of quantity, quality, and access. On quantity: many regions experience seasonal scarcity; rivers and surface sources dwindle outside monsoon months, and groundwater levels are falling rapidly in northwestern, peninsular, and other parts of the country. Quality is compromised by contaminants like arsenic, fluoride, nitrates, salinity, heavy metals—and frequent microbial contamination. Access remains uneven: according to the NSSO (76th round), only about 20% of Indian households have piped water connections, and about 43% of rural households rely on groundwater sources (handpumps, tube wells). Also, nearly 48.6% of rural households and 28% of urban households lack access to an improved, uncontaminated drinking-water source throughout the year.
Policy urgency is underscored by constitutional, legal, and international commitments. Judicial interpretations of Article 21 (Right to Life) have established the state’s duty to provide clean drinking water (e.g., Subhash Kumar v. State of Bihar, Narmada Bachao Andolan v. Union of India). India has also committed under the Sustainable Development Goals (especially SDG 6) to ensure clean water and sanitation for all.
In response, the government launched the Jal Jeevan Mission (JJM) in 2019, aiming to provide every rural household a Functional Household Tap Connection (FHTC) with water of prescribed quality. Progress has been swift: coverage has increased from about 17% in 2019 to over 80% of rural households as of early 2025. Yet large challenges remain—implementation consistency, quality monitoring, sustainability, service reliability, and equitable access. The urgency of the drinking-water issue extends past health: it impacts economic resilience, gender equity, social justice, and environmental sustainability.
Sources of Drinking Water in India
Drinking water in India comes largely from groundwater (via hand pumps, tube wells, borewells and dug wells) and surface sources such as rivers, ponds, lakes and streams. According to the National Sample Survey Office (76th round), about 43% of rural households rely on groundwater sources like hand pumps and tube wells; many others use public taps, wells, or shared connections. Piped water connections remain relatively rare: only about one in five households has a household piped water connection.
A significant proportion of households do not have access to an improved source of water free from contamination throughout the entire year. For example, nearly half of rural households and over a quarter of urban households experience gaps in access to reliable safe water or rely on unprotected or unimproved sources.
The access to water should be thought of in terms not only of the existence of water sources but also of proximity, reliability, safety, and whether water is within premises.
Quality and standards of drinking water in India
In India, the primary standard for drinking water quality is BIS 10500:2012 (“Indian Standard for Drinking Water Specification”). It sets parameters for physical, chemical, and biological contaminants, specifying both "acceptable limits" and sometimes "permissible limits in the absence of an alternative source". According to Central Pollution Control Board, Parameters include pH, turbidity, total dissolved solids (TDS), hardness, fluoride, arsenic, nitrates, iron, chloride, heavy metals, microbial indicators, etc.
Globally, the WHO Guidelines for Drinking-water Quality provide guidance values for many of these contaminants—including arsenic (0.01 mg/L), fluoride, lead, nitrates, etc. According to NCBI, these are based on health risk assessment, treatment feasibility, and often analytical measurement practicability.
Challenges and contamination
India’s drinking water systems face multiple, sometimes overlapping challenges of both quantity (scarcity) and quality (contamination).
Understanding Key Water Quality Parameters
Ensuring safe drinking water requires paying attention to several physical, chemical, and microbial parameters. Each one affects health, taste, or usability in different ways.
Microbial contamination, including coliform bacteria and E. coli, remains the leading cause of diarrhoeal disease in India and poses an immediate health risk.
Arsenic exposure over time can lead to skin lesions, cancers, and cardiovascular disorders.
Fluoride causes a range of effects, from mild dental fluorosis to severe skeletal fluorosis, depending on the concentration and duration of exposure.
Nitrates and nitrites are particularly dangerous for infants and can cause blue baby syndrome along with other health effects.
TDS, salinity, hardness, chloride, and iron influence the taste and daily usability of water, and high salt levels can affect people with hypertension.
Heavy metals such as lead, cadmium, and chromium can cause cumulative toxic effects even when present in small amounts.
How Contamination and Access Challenges Play Out
These parameters translate into real challenges for households and communities.
Chemical contamination of groundwater: A case study from Nagla Chandi in Uttar Pradesh, featured in Beyond the tap, revealed groundwater with extremely high TDS at around 3748 mg per litre, hardness at around 1030 mg per litre, and chlorides at around 1129 mg per litre. All of these exceed BIS 10500 standards by wide margins.
Seasonal scarcity and burden: Seasonal scarcity continues to burden rural communities, especially during dry months. Many households still spend time fetching water from distant sources. While the JJM progress has eased this in many places, marginalised and remote communities continue to lag.
Equity issues: Equity gaps remain deep. Tribal households, poorer households, larger households, and those with lower education often have worse access. An India Water Portal analysis on IWP’s WASH facilities shows that only about half of Scheduled Tribe households have access to improved water and sanitation services.
Bottled/packaged water concerns: bottled water consumption is rising, with around 12 percent of urban households depending on it. However, oversight for smaller firms is weak, raising concerns about quality, safety, and environmental impacts.
Monitoring and enforcement: Gaps
The Jal Jeevan Mission mandates that all piped rural water supply schemes meet BIS 10500 drinking water standards.
The Central Ground Water Board (CGWB) monitors groundwater quality for arsenic, fluoride, heavy metals, and other contaminants and shares data with state governments. Yet many habitations remain untested, and available data is often old or incomplete.
Even when water is treated at the source, distribution networks in rural areas face issues. Unlined pipelines, leakages, and breaks in supply can lead to recontamination. Households may also store or collect water in unsafe containers, further increasing the risk of contamination.
Challenges in Schemes’ Implementation
Even where tap connections are provided, supply may not be regular or of the expected quantity.
Water quality sometimes remains below standards (either due to untreated chemical contamination or microbial contamination in distribution).
Maintenance of infrastructure, particularly pipelines, pumps, and treatment plants, is uneven.
Delays and under-utilisation of funds or technical capacity in some states.
Despite obstacles, the scale of JJM’s achievements is significant: from only about 17% of rural households with piped water in 2019, to nearly 80% coverage in 2025.
Household Solutions for Safe Drinking Water
While government schemes set up infrastructure and policy, individual households often need to adopt additional practices or technologies to ensure water is truly safe.
Boiling
One of the oldest and simplest methods. Boiling water for a few minutes kills most pathogens (bacteria, viruses). It is especially useful during outbreaks or if water is suspected to be microbiologically unsafe. Downsides include fuel cost and time, and it does not remove chemical contaminants (e.g., heavy metals, fluoride, arsenic).
Disinfection / Chlorination
Using chlorine tablets or chlorine dosing (bleach) can be effective against microbes. It’s relatively cheap and easy to use. However, odour, taste, and concerns about residuals sometimes discourage use. Monitoring of dosage and correct application are necessary.
Filtration Technologies
Ceramic / Candle filters: Good for removing sediments and some microbes.
Sand / Bio-Sand filters: Useful where turbidity is an issue.
Activated carbon filters: Help with taste, colour, and some organic chemicals.
Reverse Osmosis (RO) and Ultraviolet (UV) systems: Remove many chemical contaminants and kill microbes. RO is effective for reducing TDS, fluoride, etc., but wastes water and is costly; UV needs electricity and maintenance.
Simple Testing & Awareness
Use of portable field test kits to detect parameters like fluoride, arsenic, nitrates, or the presence of bacteria.
Regularly checking colour, smell, and taste.
Safe storage of water (clean containers, covering, avoiding recontamination).
Boil or filter water before drinking if in doubt.
Behavioral & Cost Aspects
Households with limited income may find high-grade filtration systems expensive. Subsidies or community systems can help. Also, behaviour change (e.g., stopping open defecation, improving sanitation) reduces contamination of water sources. Schools and community groups can help spread awareness.
FAQs
How can I test water at home?
You can use portable or field test kits for microbial indicators (coliform, E. coli) or chemical contaminants like fluoride, nitrate, and arsenic. These kits are sold by local health departments, NGOs, or private vendors. For more detailed and accurate analysis (heavy metals, detailed microbiology), you can collect a water sample in a clean container and send it to an accredited laboratory (either government or private). Ensure you follow sample collection guidelines (sterility, storage, transport).
What should I do if my piped water is contaminated or fails to meet standards?
First, report to your local water supply agency or municipality. Under the Jal Jeevan Mission, states are required to monitor water quality as per BIS 10500.
Meanwhile, boil water or use filtration/disinfection methods at home.
You may also approach local consumer forums, or if serious contamination is ongoing, file a public interest litigation (PIL) in the High Court or approach the State Pollution Control Board.
What should I do if my piped water is contaminated or fails to meet standards?
First, report to your local water supply agency or municipality. Under the Jal Jeevan Mission, states are required to monitor water quality as per BIS 10500.
Meanwhile, boil water or use filtration/disinfection methods at home.
You may also approach local consumer forums, or if serious contamination is ongoing, file a public interest litigation (PIL) in the High Court or approach the State Pollution Control Board.
What are the permissible limits for key contaminants in drinking water?
Some limits under BIS/WHO include:
Arsenic: The WHO guideline is 0.01 mg/L; the BIS standard is 0.05 mg/L in the absence of an alternative source. NCBI
Fluoride: typically, about 1.0-1.5 mg/L depending on region.
Nitrate: BIS limit is ~ 45 mg/L.
pH range: 6.5-8.5; TDS acceptable limit ≈ 500 mg/L (per BIS), with some permissible relaxation in absence of alternative.
What penalties exist for supplying unsafe drinking water or polluting water sources?
Laws such as the Water (Prevention & Control of Pollution) Act, 1974, and the Environment Protection Act, 1986 provide for penalties, fines, and in some cases closure of polluting industries. The courts have also imposed directions on state governments. Enforcement, though, is often weak. Citizen lawsuits have been successful in some cases in compelling remedial action.
Why is there a taste of salt, or bitterness, or an odd smell/taste in water?
These can indicate high salinity (chloride content), elevated TDS, the presence of certain minerals (iron, sulphur, manganese), or sometimes microbial growth. Bitter taste may also come from excess fluoride or certain heavy metals. If you notice such changes, test the water. Use treatment—RO, activated carbon, filters—as needed.
What to do during water scarcity or supply interruptions?
Store water safely in clean, covered containers.
Use rainwater harvesting where feasible.
Prioritise uses—potable uses first.
Community sharing or utilisation of common water tankers, with oversight to ensure safety.
Advocate for improved supply from local authorities, as regular and adequate quantity is a legal and policy goal under schemes like JJM.
India’s drinking water challenge is not only about infrastructure or technology. It is about people whose daily lives are shaped by what flows from their taps. Strengthening local monitoring, improving transparency, and ensuring equitable access can turn this challenge into an opportunity. Safe water is not a luxury. It is the foundation of health and dignity, and India’s policies must reflect that urgency.