Beyond tap connections: Rethinking water governance and sustainability in Jal Jeevan Mission 2.0

A tap connection is often seen as the final milestone in the journey towards water security. For rural households, it promises relief from long walks to distant water sources, freedom from tanker dependence and access to safe drinking water at home. Over the past few years, the Jal Jeevan Mission (JJM) has transformed this aspiration into one of the world's largest rural water supply programmes, bringing tap connections to millions of households across India.

Yet in many villages, the story does not end when a tap is installed. In Ghoti Budruk village in Maharashtra's Nashik district, every household has received a tap connection under the Jal Jeevan Mission, and the village has access to a sustainable water source. However, residents continue to face water shortages because the required water storage infrastructure remains incomplete [1].

A similar situation exists in Karajgaon village in Chhatrapati Sambhaji Nagar district. During a field visit in 2023, researchers found that a new drinking water source had already been identified, but it could not be used because the pipeline network connecting the source to the village was unfinished. As a result, the village continued to rely on two water tankers every day while an existing well struggled to meet demand [2].

These examples reveal a recurring challenge. Across several states, infrastructure has been created, but reliable water service remains uncertain because of gaps in implementation, governance and long-term operation and maintenance [3, 4, 5]. The question facing India's rural water sector today is no longer only how to build infrastructure. It is how to ensure that water actually reaches households consistently and sustainably.

Jal Jeevan Mission's remarkable achievement and unfinished task

Launched in 2019 under the Ministry of Jal Shakti, the Jal Jeevan Mission sought to provide every rural household with a Functional Household Tap Connection.

The programme represented a significant shift in India's approach to rural drinking water. It placed equal emphasis on community participation, source sustainability, water quality monitoring, capacity building and decentralised governance through Gram Panchayats and Village Water and Sanitation Committees.

The scale of progress has been substantial. According to the JJM Dashboard, around 15.8 crore households, approximately 81 percent of rural households in India, have received Functional Household Tap Connections. However, nearly 4 crore households are still awaiting connections even though the mission's original timeline ended in 2024.

Recognising both its achievements and implementation challenges, the Government of India did its own scrutiny of the programme and extended it until 2028 [6]. The next phase, often referred to as JJM 2.0, places greater emphasis on service delivery and institutional strengthening and sustainable operation and maintenance systems [7].

This shift reflects an important lesson from the first phase of the mission: water security depends not only on infrastructure creation but also on how systems are managed, maintained and sustained over time.

The missing link: Measuring functionality, not just infrastructure

One of the most significant challenges in rural water supply remains largely invisible. Water schemes are often evaluated through infrastructure indicators such as connections provided, pipelines laid or schemes completed. These are relatively easy to measure. What is far more difficult to assess is whether water reaches households regularly, whether local institutions can operate systems effectively and whether water sources remain secure in the long term.

Although provisions for third-party assessments exist, their implementation has been limited. This has created a situation where infrastructure creation is tracked, but service outcomes remain insufficiently verified.

The scale of this challenge becomes apparent when examining implementation data. As of 2026, nearly 22,000 of Maharashtra's 51,000 approved schemes remained incomplete, largely because of funding and execution constraints [8]. National figures tell a similar story.

Status of piped water schemes under JJM at country level

Source: JJM Reports Format B15, accessed 08 April 2026

Chart constructed by using data from JJM Reports Format B15, accessed 08 April 2026.

Out of 638,550 piped water supply schemes across India, only 86,447 have been completed, while more than 552,000 remain under implementation. The figures point to a broader concern. A large number of ongoing schemes raises questions about execution capacity, timely completion, operation and maintenance preparedness and long term source sustainability.

In several villages, continued dependence on tankers and alternative water arrangements, even in areas reported as fully covered, suggests that service reliability remains uncertain despite infrastructure expansion [1, 9].

As JJM enters its next phase, the focus may need to move beyond infrastructure coverage towards continuity, functionality and sustainability of rural water services. Without a systematic way to assess village readiness and institutional capacity, JJM 2.0 risks reproducing infrastructure-led outcomes without ensuring reliable service delivery. The challenge now is not simply building more infrastructure but making sure the infrastructure already created works as intended and continues to deliver water for years to come.

From building infrastructure to delivering reliable water services

The next phase of the Jal Jeevan Mission presents an opportunity to shift the focus from creating infrastructure to ensuring that rural water systems function effectively over the long term. Before making new investments, JJM 2.0 can benefit from assessing whether villages are prepared to operate, manage and sustain their water supply systems.

One approach is the Operation & Maintenance (O&M) framework developed by the Watershed Organisation Trust (WOTR) and the WOTR Centre for Resilience Studies (W CReS) in collaboration with the Water Supply and Sanitation Department (WSSD) of the Government of Maharashtra. Through this  approach, the framework aligns with broader principles of effective water governance that emphasise equity, sustainability, participatory governance and institutional capacity. 

In 2023, WOTR signed an agreement with WSSD to develop and test this framework across 102 villages in Maharashtra. The exercise also led to the creation of a compendium of good O&M practices in the state, supported by UNICEF and CYDA. The experience suggests that a similar approach could support JJM 2.0 by helping governments align investments with village-level readiness and strengthening the long-term sustainability of drinking water systems.

What the assessment revealed

The assessment of 102 villages offered valuable insights into the state of rural water governance. Many villages performed relatively well in technical management, financial systems and water quality monitoring, indicating that infrastructure and basic oversight mechanisms are gradually improving. However, the assessment also identified persistent gaps in institutional capacity and source sustainability.

In several villages, Village Water and Sanitation Committees required stronger capacity building, clearer operational responsibilities and more effective community engagement. Concerns about the long-term sustainability of water sources also highlighted the need for stronger convergence with watershed and groundwater management programmes such as the Integrated Watershed Management Programme (IWMP), Jalyukt Shivar, Atal Bhujal Yojana and PoCRA.

These findings reinforce an important lesson: providing household tap connections does not automatically guarantee reliable and sustainable water services. Water security depends equally on the institutions, systems and resources that keep those connections functioning.

An O&M framework for better water governance

The O&M Framework was designed to address these challenges by providing a structured way to assess the performance of rural drinking water systems and identify areas for improvement. Developed from the Water Governance Standards created by WOTR [10], the framework evaluates Gram Panchayats on their ability to manage drinking water schemes through five key dimensions: Technical, Institutional, Financial, Water Quality and Source Sustainability. Together, these five modules carry a total score of 100 points [11].

Once applied, the framework generates village-specific assessment reports that highlight strengths, weaknesses and priority actions. This enables both local institutions and government agencies to understand where improvements are needed.

The framework also uses a rating system that categorises villages as Bronze, Silver, Gold or Platinum based on their performance. These ratings can serve as a practical tool for prioritising investments under JJM 2.0, directing resources towards villages that require additional support while encouraging better governance and performance across rural water systems. Beyond funding decisions, the framework offers policymakers a clearer picture of the overall status of operation and maintenance systems across regions and states.

A tool for JJM 2.0

While the framework was developed and tested in Maharashtra, its principles have broader relevance. The specific indicators can be adapted to suit local conditions in different states, allowing the framework to be applied across diverse social, institutional and hydrological contexts.

As JJM 2.0 moves forward, such an approach can help ensure that investments are guided not only by infrastructure targets but also by a village's capacity to sustain water services. By linking funding decisions to governance, institutional readiness and source sustainability, the programme can move closer to its ultimate objective: delivering reliable water services rather than simply installing infrastructure.

JJM 2.0 presents an opportunity to correct the course of rural water supply in India by shifting the focus from infrastructure creation to sustained service delivery. While the first phase of the mission demonstrated the ability to rapidly expand coverage, the next phase must ensure that these assets translate into reliable, equitable, and functional water services on the ground. This requires moving beyond a one-size-fits-all investment approach towards evidence-based and performance-linked planning, where village readiness, institutional capacity, and governance systems guide decision-making.

Tools like the O&M Framework can play a critical role in enabling such prioritisation. Ultimately, the success of JJM 2.0 will depend on whether it can strengthen local institutions, foster community ownership, and build resilient systems for operation and maintenance. Without such a shift, JJM 2.0 risks repeating the very gaps it seeks to address—leaving infrastructure in place, but services uncertain.

Authors are Researchers at WOTR Centre for Resilience Studies (W-CReS) and acknowledge Tushar Suryawanshi, Arun Dahale, Ankita Yadav, Navnath Ghodke and Ashlesha Gaikwad for their inputs.

References

1. Sharma, H. (2025, June 18). In Maharashtra, a panchayat with its own revenue channels awaits water flow from Jal Jeevan taps. The Indian Express. https://indianexpress.com/article/india/in-maharashtra-a-panchayat-with-its-own-revenue-channels-awaits-water-flow-from-jal-jeevan-taps-10073023/ 

2. Dalavi A. (2023). Water Tanker for Har Ghar Jal certified village in Marathwada. https://medium.com/@adarsh.dalavi/water-tanker-for-har-ghar-jal-certified-village-in-marathwada-e5714cc80eba 

3. Torgalkar, V. (2025a, January 23). How the Jal Jeevan Mission Failed Maharashtra’s Villages - The Wire. The Wire. https://thewire.in/rights/how-the-jal-jeevan-mission-failed-maharashtras-villages 

4. Torgalkar, V., & Indiaspend. (2025b, January 17). Maharashtra villages struggle to get water under Jal Jeevan mission. Indiaspend. https://www.indiaspend.com/governance/maharashtra-villages-struggle-to-get-water-under-jal-jeevan-mission-938478#:~:text=Rajasthan%2C%20Tamil%20Nadu%2C%20and%20Maharashtra,/L%2C%20said%20the%20report 

5. PTI. (2025, July 24). Water scarcity, difficult terrain, fund delays slow tap water rollout in rural India: Govt. The Economic Times. https://economictimes.indiatimes.com/news/india/water-scarcity-difficult-terrain-fund-delays-slow-tap-water-rollout-in-rural-india-govt/articleshow/122881416.cms?from=mdr

6. Sharma, H. (2026, March 31). Money starts flowing again: 5 states get Rs 1,561 crore as Centre reboots Jal Jeevan Mission. The Indian Express. https://indianexpress.com/article/india/jal-jeevan-mission-2-0-funds-resumed-states-extension-2028-10611455/ 

7. PMO. 2026. Cabinet approves extension of Jal Jeevan Mission (JJM) period up to December 2028 with enhanced outlay and restructured implementation focusing on structural reforms in rural drinking water supply sector under JJM 2.0. (n.d.). https://www.pmindia.gov.in/en/news_updates/cabinet-approves-extension-of-jal-jeevan-mission-jjm-period-up-to-december-2028-with-enhanced-outlay-and-restructured-implementation-focusing-on-structural-reforms-in-rural-drinking-water-supply-sec/

8. Lokasatta. (2026, March 3). राज्यात जलजीवन मिशनचा बोजवारा, निधीटंचाईमुळे २२ हजार योजनांची कामे अर्धवट. https://www.loksatta.com/maharashtra/jal-jeevan-mission-maharashtra-fund-crunch-incomplete-water-schemes-corruption-gulabrao-patil-ssb-93-5749138/  

9. Dalavi A. (2024). JJM: 100% taps but without water. https://medium.com/@adarsh.dalavi/jjm-100-taps-but-without-water-5f0a9b47be51 

10. Lobo, C., Kale, E., Sathe, M., and Garg, R., 2022. The Water Governance Standard: Making Water Everybody’s Business, Watershed Organisation Trust (WOTR), Pune. https://wotr.org/wgs/ 

11. Kale E., Patil J., Dahale A., Suryvanshi T., Ghodake N., Yadav A. ( 2025 January). Need for O&M Framework for Assessing Drinking Water Schemes and Ranking Panchayats. Jal Jeevan Samvad. https://jaljeevanmission.gov.in/sites/default/files/2025-05/JalJeevanSamvad-January-2025-en.pdf