Gender bias in agricultural decision-making among agrarian households in Odisha

One of the United Nations' Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) is to achieve gender equality. Access to resources, particularly land, plays a critical role in achieving this. However, only 13% of global landholders are women, with even lower figures in developing countries. In India, women own just 12.9% of land, with regional variations—15.4% in southern states and 9.2% in eastern states.

Intra-household resource allocation shapes women's bargaining power and decision-making ability. Limited land ownership reduces women's participation in agricultural decisions and affects their livelihoods.

Conceptual framework

Empowerment is defined as the process by which individuals, previously denied the ability to make strategic life choices, gain that ability. It involves three key dimensions: resources, agency, and achievements. Resources enable choice, while agency facilitates implementing those choices. In agrarian societies, land ownership is a critical resource that can enhance women's welfare and empowerment, serving as a key indicator of their empowerment.

Despite statutory protections for women's land rights, deep-rooted cultural norms in many developing countries hinder women from asserting these rights. Shifting resource ownership in favour of women can enhance their economic, social, and political empowerment.

This study explores the relationship between land ownership, agrarian decision-making, and women's empowerment. It hypothesises that gender-based land ownership influences agricultural decisions, alongside factors like age, education, income, social structure, caste, religion, quality of life, and exposure to agricultural technology. Agrarian decision-making includes choices related to cultivation, marketing, financial management, and technology adoption, operationalised as both sole and joint decision-making by women and men.

Data, sampling, and analytical framework

This study employed a mix of multi-stage random sampling and judgmental sampling techniques. The unit of observation comprised households involved in agriculture and allied activities, focusing on women landholders in Eastern India, where only 9.2% are female landowners. Odisha, a state in Eastern India, was randomly selected as the study region. Data was collected from rural households in Odisha during October 2019 using a semi-open questionnaire validated through a pilot survey.

Study area and methodology

Odisha, located on the eastern coast of India, has diverse agro-climatic zones. To ensure comprehensive representation, districts from each agro-climatic zones were proportionally selected, covering 17 out of Odisha’s 30 districts. One revenue block per district and one Gram Panchayat per block were selected randomly. Two villages per Gram Panchayat were chosen based on distance from the Gram Panchayat office to account for varying access to government services. Socio-economic data were supplemented by interviews with village heads.

A total of 34 villages were selected, and 30 households from each village were sampled based on landholding size, income, education, sanitation, caste, and religion. This resulted in a total sample size of 1,020 households, reduced to 996 after data cleaning.

The study examined gender-based agricultural decision-making using Multinomial Logit Models (MLM) due to the categorical nature of dependent variables. Key variables include decisions on farming, seed procurement, expenditure, and marketing. Independent variables encompass socio-economic factors like land ownership, education, income, and sanitation. The Human Development Index for Females (HDIF) and Sanitation Index (SI) were constructed from health, education, income, and sanitation indicators.

Gendered decision-making in agrarian households: Key findings and implications

The study examining decision-making in agrarian households across Odisha reveals significant gender disparities in agricultural activities. Based on a sample of 996 households, six key areas of decision-making were analysed: overall farming, procurement and collection of seeds, agricultural expenditure, timing of agricultural activities, and the marketing of produce.

Land ownership emerges as a critical factor influencing decision-making. Only 4.82% of households report women as sole landowners, while 5.52% have joint ownership. Women landowners exhibit significantly higher decision-making power, being up to 28.99 times more likely to control overall farming decisions compared to male landowners. Joint ownership also boosts women's influence but to a lesser extent. These findings underscore the role of land ownership in enhancing women's agency in agricultural activities.

Despite increased access to information and technology, barriers persist for women. Although 81.63% of households are aware of modern agricultural technology, only 11.45% utilise it, reflecting the low level of mechanisation in rural farming practices. Education levels, averaging 5.65 years per household, and infrastructure access, such as electricity (available in 86.8% of households), further highlight the socioeconomic challenges these households face. Poverty remains a significant issue, with 43.6% of families living below the poverty line.

Gender bias remains a significant barrier, even for women with knowledge and experience. The study found that women with sufficient farming information or expertise in seed quality are still less likely to influence procurement and marketing decisions. Societal norms continue to frame men as the primary decision-makers, marginalising women’s contributions. Additionally, constraints such as physical labour requirements and limited market access further restrict women's participation in agricultural marketing, traditionally a male-dominated activity.

The findings point to critical policy implications. Promoting female land ownership could substantially enhance women’s decision-making power and lead to more equitable agricultural practices. Legal and institutional reforms to support joint or female land ownership are necessary. Moreover, improving women's access to agricultural technology, financial resources, and market information is essential to reducing gender disparities. Finally, education and capacity-building initiatives targeting women can empower them to take on more significant roles in agricultural decision-making.

Conclusion and policy implication

The study reveals that Odisha’s agrarian society, particularly among forward and backward caste communities, is predominantly male-dominated in agricultural decision-making. While sole or joint land ownership by women increases their decision-making power, experience and knowledge in farming do not translate into greater influence.

Even when women possess sufficient information, their decisions are often overlooked in favor of male counterparts. This pattern is evident in decisions related to agricultural expenditure, timing of activities, and seed procurement, where women, despite their expertise, rely on men for their choices to be acknowledged.

The full paper can be accessed here